Adams, M. (1988). Five-year retrospective on stuttering theory,
research, and therapy: 1982-1987. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 13, 399-405.
The purpose of this retrospective was to review the theories,
research and treatment for stuttering between the years of 1982-
1987. The following theories were reviewed: Starkweather's
demands and capacities model, Kent's reduced capacity for temporal
regulation, Andrews and associates' internal model of the
relationship between motor acts and the various sensory stimuli they
produce, Yeudall's three-dimensional, hierarchical concept of the
brain and its functioning, and Perkins' involuntary disruption in the
flow of speech. Research trends have involved direct physiological,
and indirect acoustic, studies of stutterers' speech production
abilities and their stuttering. Therapy has involved increased
attention to the language abilities of young stutterers during both
their evaluation and treatment.
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Adams, MR. (1987). Voice Onsets and Segment Durations of Normal Speakers and
Beginning Stutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 2, 133-139.
To better explore the possibility of discrepancies between the speech production
abilities of stuttering and normal speakers, voice onset times (VOT) and segmental
durations were assessed in 5 stuttering and 5 nonstuttering preschoolers. VOTs, initial
consonants, and vowel durations were measured. Results demonstrated that the
preschoolers who stuttered had slower VOTs and their mean initial consonant and
vowel durations were longer.
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Acton, C. (2004). A conversation analytic perspective on stammering:
Some reflections and observations. STAMMERING RESEARCH, 1,
249-270. http://www.stamres.psychol.ucl.ac.uk
Qualitative research can aid in studying aspects of stuttering
that have been given less attention or that have been ignored
altogether. Conversation analysis is one type of qualitative research
that could increase our knowledge of stuttering. This paper explores
literature on interactional, or conversational, aspects of stuttering
such as turn-taking, adjacency pairs, and response tokens. More
information is needed about natural conversations in order to fully
understand communication interactions of and with those who
stutter. The conversation analytic perspective is a promising tool to
help uncover and understand various behaviors of people who
stutter.
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Adams, M.R. (1992). Childhood stuttering under "positive"
conditions. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH - LANGUAGE
PATHOLOGY 1, 5-6.
Adams gives reasons why children stutter during "positive"
conditions. Adams gives his subjective impressions that any number
of four patterns may be present in a given case. Parents and
clinicians need to look for possible negative factors that might be
undermining their young child's fluency. Parents identify positive
and negative factors by participating in parental counseling.
Back to index
Adams, M. & Webster, L.M. (1989). Case selection strategies with
children "at risk" for stuttering. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 14, 11-16.
This examines strengths and weaknesses of strategies used to
determine if services should be provided to fluency clients. The first
to be discussed is the "differential diagnostic approach" in which a
clinician uses behavior criteria to differentiate children that may be
at risk, normally disfluent, or are already labeled as a "stutterer".
The next case selection strategy is the "individualized treatment for
all approach" where the issue of the validity of clinical labels or
groupings is avoided and some type of intervention is offered to
every child. These approaches are compared to view their
similarities and differences and the need for studies addressing
surrounding issues is discussed.
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Alexander, T. (2006). Our time provides kids their time. JOURNAL OF
STUTTERING, ADVOCACY & RESEARCH, 1, 33-35.
http://www.journalofstuttering.com/ListofArticles.html.
Founded in 2001, Our Time Theatre Company became an
opportunity for young people who stutter to express themselves in
their own voices and in their own time. Our Time is a non-profit
organization working with children and young adults who stutter
(ages 8-19). Rehearsal meeting are weekly and run for a 34-week
period and concludes with a professional production of a play written
and performed by the young people of Our Time. Many people who
stutter allow the fear and shame associated to control their lives. The
staff at Our Time wants young people to believe in their power,
imagination, and self-worth, and to understand that they can be
whatever they want to be, and that stuttering will not hold them
back from their dreams!
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Alm, PA. (2004). Stuttering, emotions, and heart rate during anticipatory
anxiety: a critical review. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 29,
123-133.
The study in this article focuses on any effects or changes that occur in
emotions and heart rate during anticipatory anxiety. Within the study is an
overview of the autonomic nervous system and the freezing/fighting
response in relation to their effects in a person who stutters. It was noted
that a person who stutters would often react in a "freezing moment" during
a stressful speech situation in correlation with the feeling of helplessness or
loss of control. This study found a reduction in the heart rate of those
persons who stuttered when tested. Although heart rate was decreased skin
conductance and pulse volume showed similar results for both stutterers and
fluent speakers. No conclusive evidence was given to explain the reduction
in heart rate when obvious anxiety occurs in speakers who stutter during
speech related situations.
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Alm, P.A., & Risberg, J. (2007). Stuttering in adults: the acoustic
startle response, tempermental traits, and biological factors.
JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS, 40, 1-41.
This article analyzes the relationship of stuttering and a
number of factors including acoustic startle, biochemical variables
(calcium, magnesium, and prolactin), anxiety, temperament, and
neurological lesions (concussion and head injuries). A heightened
level of neuromuscular reactivity has been hypothesized in adults.
The current study researches this hypothesis and involves 32 adults
who developmentally stutter compared to 28 persons without speech
problems. Many questionnaires, temperament scales and large test
batteries were used as measures in the study. No statistical group
difference was shown between the group who stuttered and the
controls regarding the startle. However, startle was positively
correlated with trait anxiety. There were no significant group
differences found regarding the biochemical variables. The group
who stuttered had a result of lower calcium levels. Pre-onset events
resulting in neurological lesions were also supported by the current
study. Overall, the anxiety was found to be primarily caused from
the stuttering experiences.
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Ambrose, N. G. (2004). Theoretical perspectives on the cause of stuttering.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION SCIENCES AND
DISORDERS, 31, 80-91.
This article focused on the different etiologies of stuttering. The main
etiologies that it discussed were psychology, learning theory, and biology.
In the section about psychological causes the article discussed many
different individuals and their views about stuttering being psychological.
One of these views were Freud's, where he said, "Stuttering is an overt
symptom of something else - unconscious, deep-seated neurotic disorder."
This article also talked about the idea that stuttering is learned, and once
again discussed many people's views dealing with this belief, like Wendell
Johnson's diagnosogenic theory. Finally, the article discussed the theory that
stuttering is biological, and discussed different views from people and
EEGs and MRIs. The article concludes by saying that there is probably
something in the brain, but maybe other genetic factors or environmental
factors may "trigger" stuttering.
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Ambrose, N., Cox, N., & Yairi, E. (1997). the Genetic Basis of
Persistence and Recovery in Stuttering. JOURNAL OF SPEECH,
LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 40, 567-580.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between
the susceptibility to stuttering and genetics. Two questions were
investigated: "Is there a sex effect in recovery from stuttering?" and
"Is persistence/recovery in stuttering transmitted in families?".
Subjects were recruited from the University of Illinois area through
referrals and 66 subjects participated. Results of the study confirm
that stuttering is familial. Four primary conclusions were derived.
There is a greater proportion of females than males that recover
from stuttering, persistence and recovery are both familial, there is
statistical evidence for both a major locus and polygenic components
contributing to both persistent and recovered stuttering, and
persistent and recovered stuttering are unlikely to be genetically
independent disorders. Overall, data from this study support the
hypothesis that persistent and recovered stuttering possess a
common genetic etiology.
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Ambrose, N., Paden, E., Watkins, R., & Yairi, E. (2001). What is
stuttering? JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 44, 3, 585-597.
This article was written in response to a letter that was written by
Professor Wingate (2001). It was recently published in the Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. The authors have made
several opposing statements in regards to Wingate's argument. The
authors feel that Wingate has harshly violated the fundamental
measures of accuracy, validity, and internal consistency, as well as
reliance on published data. The authors focus on these principles and
respond with their own arguments against Wingate's attacks on their
report on persistency and natural recovery in children who stutter.
Back to index
Ambrose, N.G. & Yairi. E. (1994). The Development of Awareness of
Stuttering in Preschool Children. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, v19. n4, Dec.
This was a three year study with twenty preschool children who
stuttered and twenty age and gender matched, normally fluent
children in the Champaign Illinois area. The children were shown a
videotape of two puppets: one fluent and one nonfluent. Each child
was asked separately to point to the puppet that talks the way you
do . The study found that there is some awareness for some children
at an early age. They also found that as age increases, awareness
also increases.
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Ambrose, N.G., & Yairi, E. (1999). Early childhood stuttering I:
Persistence and recovery rates. JOURNAL OF SPEECH,
LANGUAGE AND HEARING RESEARCH, 24, 1097-1112.
The purpose of this study was to study the characteristics of
stuttering during the early childhood. The focus was placed on the
likelihood of persistent stuttering and spontaneous recovery from
stuttering. The study included 147 preschool children who stuttered.
They were periodically assessed for several years since their onset of
stuttering. The study indicated a continual decrease in the frequency
and severity of stuttering as children aged and as many children
progressed to recovery. This study also discussed if a pattern was
present in those who recovered and why others didn't recover. The
study suggests more research needs to focus on the patterns of
recovery.
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Ambrose, N.G., Yairi, E., & Cox, N. (1993). Genetic aspects of early
childhood stuttering. JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 36, 701-706.
This report looks at genetic perspectives of stuttering with
emphasis on preschool children, close to stuttering onset, including
those children who recover and those who continue to stutter into
adulthood. Sixty nine children participated in the study, ages 2.1-
6.3 years. Data was collected on family history and stuttering
through interviews, followed by a segregation analysis. Results
indicate that more than 2/3 of children who stutter, report that
others in their family stutter also. The male to female ratio is
higher among subjects with other family members who stutter, and
1:1 for subjects that reported no family members stutter. There
were more males who stutter than females, but male and female
stutters often have equal numbers of reported family stutterers.
The frequency of stuttering was also higher among first degree
relatives than among second and third degree relatives.
Back to index
Ambrose, N.G., & Yairi, E. (2001). Longitudinal studies of childhood
stuttering: Evaluation of critiques. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE,
AND HEARING RESEARCH, 44, 4, 867-872.
Ambrose and Yairi wrote this article in response to the attacks
made on them by Ingham and Bothe (2001). They state that despite
the progress that's been achieved in research methodology and
strong consistent evidence for natural recovery, they regret that
several professionals have maintained ignorant perspectives on the
issue. Ambrose and Yairi provide statements in this article in defense
of their previous research in the Illinois Studies. They feel that their
willingness to modify their position as evidence develops reflects
scientific integrity, and also the belief that a single, brief counseling
session was a probable cause of the high rate of recovery, is
unreasonable. The authors continue to defend other arguments, such
as parental source information, home speech samples, and SLD
versus stuttering. They also discuss the use of proximal versus distal
variables and genetic factors that affect recovery. The authors firmly
believe that there is more than one method and/or measure that is
useful for the study of stuttering and that a narrow approach would
delay progress.
Back to index
Ambrose, N.G., & Yairi, E. (2001). Perspectives on stuttering: Response
to Onslow & Packman (2001). JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE,
AND HEARING RESEARCH, 44, 3, 595-597.
This article was written by Ambrose and Yairi in response to
Onslow and Packman's (2001) article: Ambiguity and algorithms in
diagnosing early stuttering: Comments on Ambrose & Yairi (1999).
Ambrose and Yairi state that although Onslow and Packman raised
valid issues about their data, they may have taken the data and
conclusions out of context. Ambrose and Yairi claim the following
items in response to the three issues raised by Onslow and Packman:
1) they selected children perceived as stuttering or normally fluent,
2) they did use the weighted SLD measure (along with several
others) to examine disfluencies, and 3) they reported, given that
people were identified as stuttering, what disfluency behaviors were
exhibited.
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Ambrose, N., & Yairi, E. (2002). The Tudor study: data and ethics. AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY, 2, 190-203.
Recent exposure of the Tudor Study that was conducted in 1939 at the University
of Iowa with the aim of studying the effects of verbal labeling on the frequency of
disfluent children who stutter has raised strong reactions in the general and medical
communities. Allegedly, the investigator and her mentor, a past leader in the field,
were successful in their attempts to induce stuttering in normally speaking children.
The potential clinical implications of such conclusions for the treatment of early
childhood stuttering has had effects on the recent developments that suggest direct
intervention with preschool children who show signs of stuttering. The purpose of this
article is to re-examine the results of the Tudor Study, and to discuss its related broad
range of ethical issues.
Back to index
Amir, O., & Yairi, E. (2002). The effect of temporal manipulation on the perception
of disfluencies as normal or stuttering. JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS, 35, 63-82.
This study compared the temporal features of speech repetitions of normally fluent
speakers with people who stutter. The vowel length and the interval between
repeated speech units (part-word and whole-word repetitions) are typically shorter in
persons who stutter than in fluent speakers. After the vowel length and time interval
between speech units were lengthened using computer software, listeners were more
likely to perceive the repetitions as normal disfluency. Longer intervals between
repetitions (slowing the overall rate of repetitions) may make them sound more like
normal disfluency.
Back to index
Anderson, J.D. (2007). Phonological neighborhood and word
frequency effects in the stuttered disfluencies of children
who stutter. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 50. 229-247.
This fluency study focuses on the stuttering-like disfluencies of
preschool children who stutter in relation to neighborhood
density/frequency and the affect it may or may not have on the
production of stuttering-like disfluencies. A speech sample was taken
from each of the 15 subjects and values were gathered from an
online source. Results proved that fluency is indeed affected by
neighborhood and frequency variables and those variables also
influence the children's production of stuttering-like disfluencies
Back to index
Anderson, J.D., & Conture, E.G. (2000). Language abilities of children
who stutter a preliminary study. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS,
25, 283-304.
The purpose of this study was to determine 1) whether children
who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS) score
differently on standardized receptive/expressive language and
receptive vocabulary tests and 2) whether there is a relationship
between differences in receptive/expressive and receptive
vocabulary scores and total disfluency frequency for CWS and CWNS.
Forty subjects were tested in their homes, participating in informal
clinician-child conversation and standardized speech-language tests.
Results indicate a significant difference in measures of
receptive/expressive language and receptive vocabularies for CWS
compared to CWNS. This difference was not correlated with the
stuttering frequency of CWS. Findings suggest the imbalance of
semantic and syntactic development may contribute to difficulty in
establishing normal speech fluency.
Back to index
Anderson, J.D., Conture, E.G. (2004). Sentence-structure priming in
young children who do and do not stutter. JOURNAL OF SPEECH,
LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 47, 552-571.
The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a
difference between children who stutter and children who do not
stutter in speech reaction time and correctness of picture explanation
during no-prime and syntactic-prime conditions. The study consisted
of 32 children; 16 who stutter, and 16 who do not. The participants
were matched on the basis of age (3;3- 5;5) and gender (12 male, 4
female) and had no history of neurological, psychological, speech-
language, or intellectual problems. The participants were tested on
two occasions, at their homes and at the clinic to obtain
conversational speech samples. The subjects were assigned to a
stuttering group if he or she exhibited more than three disfluencies
per 100 words of conversational speech and if he or she were rated
mild or worse on the Stuttering Severity Instrument for Children and
Adults, Third Edition (SSI). The procedures included a sentence-
structure priming task where children responded to pictures. The
study found that both the children who stutter and the children who
do not stutter were influenced by the syntactic priming; that the
children who stutter showed greater improvement in scores during a
syntactic-prime condition; that children who stutter provided less
correct responses than children who do not stutter; and that children
who exhibit more stuttering-like disfluencies in their conversational
speech have slower reaction times during no-prime conditions.
Back to index
Anderson, J., Pellowski, M., & Conture, E. (2005). Childhood stuttering
and dissociations across linguistic domains. JOURNAL OF
FLUENCY DISORDERS, 30, 219-253.
100 preschool children were assessed to examine
the presence of dissociations in the speech and language skills of
nonfluent vs. fluent speakers. Four standardized speech-language
measures were administered on two occasions to assess the
childrenıs receptive and expressive language, vocabulary, and
articulation. An informal parent-child conversational interaction
took place to gather a 300-word speech sample for the analysis of
stuttering and speech dysfluency. Results of this investigation
indicated that some speech-language abilities of children who stutter
may not be as well developed as children who do not stutter. A
subgroup of children who stutter may exist who exhibit dissociations
across speech-language domains. It is likely that these children are
more susceptible to breakdowns in speech fluency.
Back to index
Anderson, J. D., Wagovich, S. A., & Hall, N. E. (2006). Nonword
repetition skills in young children who do and do not stutter.
JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 31, 177-199.
The purpose of this study was to describe the phonological
working memory skills of young children who stutter (CWS) and
compare them to young children who do not stutter (CWNS). The
participants (12 CWS and 12 CWNS ages 3-5 years) completed the
children's test of nonword repetition (CNRep) and a battery of
standardized language tests. Results demonstrated that CWS produced
significantly fewer two- and three-syllable nonwords correctly than
their CWNS matches. Also, these children produced significantly more
phoneme errors than the CWNS at the three-syllable word level. No
significant relationships were evident between CNRep and language
scores for CWNS. Results of the present study are in concordance with
previous studies examining nonword repetition skills in CWS and
CWNS.
Back to index
Anderson, J.M., Hood, S.B., & Sellers, D.E. (1988). Central auditory
processing abilities of adolescent and preadolescent stuttering and
nonstuttering children. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 13, 199-
214.
Previous research suggests a relationship between auditory
processing disorders and stuttering. Central auditory processing
abilities of stutterers and nonstutterers were studied. The results
indicate no significant differences between the two subject groups on
the central auditory processing tasks. However, an exception to one
condition was present, left competing on the Staggered Spondaic
Word Test. This suggests that the auditory processing abilities of
stutterers develop later than their nonstuttering peers.
Back to index
Anderson, J.D., Pellowski, M.W., Conture, E.G., & Kelly, E.M. (2003). Temperamental
characteristics of young children who stutter. JOURNAL OF SPEECH,
LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 46, 1221-1233.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether temperamental characteristics of
children who stutter are different from those of children who do not stutter. The authors
also looked at the relationship between the onset of stuttering and the temperamental
characteristics of the children who stutter. Subjects included 62 children between the ages
of 3:0 and 5:4. The children were matched by age, gender, and race in a group of children
who stutter and a group of children who do not stutter. Standardized speech and language
tests were administered to the subjects and the parents completed a Behavioral Style
Questionnaire (BSQ) during an in home visit. Later, during a clinic visit, the children and
parents participated in an informal conversational interaction, and the children completed
a hearing screening. Results of this study indicated that children who stutter scored above
the mean in terms of adaptability and rhythmicity but below the mean in terms of
distractibility compared to children who do not stutter. Overall, parents judged 3 to 5-
year-old children who stutter to be slower in adapting their behavior to change, more
persistent during tasks, and more irregular in daily biological functions such as sleep or
hunger compared to children who do not stutter. The authors concluded that such
temperamental characteristics might influence or contribute to childhood stuttering.
Back to index
Andy, O.J., and Bhatnagar, S.C. (1991). Thalamic-induced stuttering
(surgical observations). JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 34, 796-800.
This article discusses the relationship of thalamic discharge and
disfluencies. It is a single case study of a surgical procedure on a
29 year old man. The electrode was inserted in 2mm increments.
Abnormal thalamic discharges were identified at 1.8 cm. However,
when advancing the electrode another 2mm, a discharge was
activated along with an 8 second interval of repetition disfluencies.
The patient was aware of his disfluencies, but he could not control
them. The disfluencies were thought to be a result of discharges of
the mesothalamus.
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Archibald, L.; DeNil, LF. (1999). The Relationship Between Stuttering
Severity and Kinesthetic Acuity for Jaw Movements in Adults Who
Stutter. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 24: 1, 25-42.
Based on previous research, this study looked into a deficiency in the
processing of oral kinesthetic sensations in adults who stutter. Twelve subjects,
ranging from normally fluent speakers to moderately/severe stutterers, were
asked to repeatedly make the smallest possible upward movement with their
jaw with visual feedback, and then again without the visual feedback. Results
showed that all of the subjects made larger movements when there was no
visual feedback, but the persons with very mild stuttering had the most
significant increase in movement. When looking at the amount of time it took to
make the movements, all subjects took longer when there was no visual
feedback, but the persons with moderately/severe stuttering took the longest.
Back to index
Arends, N., Povel, DJ., Kolk, H. (1988). Stuttering as an intentional
phenomenon. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 13, 141-151.
This study examined the relation between stuttering and attention
by means of a dual-task paradigm. Eleven stutters and eleven
nonstutterers ages 19-34 were chosen as subjects for this study. The
study tested two hypotheses. The "overload" hypothesis assumes that
the stutterer has some problem in the motor control of speech and
the "regression" hypothesis assumes that a stutterer can speak in an
automatic mode, but that for some reason and under particular
circumstances regressed to the earlier developmentally controlled
mode. All of the subjects performed three speech tasks both alone
and in combination with a tracking task. The results showed that the
number of disfluencies increased with the complexity of the speech
task and that the rate of speech depends highly on the nature of the
speech task (decreases with complexity). From this study, it was
concluded that at least part of the results supported the regression
hypothesis indicating that stuttering may arise from the attempts of
the stutterer to produce controlled speech. There were other aspects
of the study, however, that still need to be accounted for.
Back to index
Ardila, A., Bateman, J.R., Nino, C.R., Pulido, E., Rivera, D.B., &
Vanegas, C.J. (1994). An epidemiologic study of stuttering.
JOURNAL
OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS, 27, 37-48.
The general purpose of this study was to obtain epidemiologic data
regarding stuttering from a Spanish-speaking population in South
America. The specific goals were to determine the frequency of: a)
self-reported stuttering, b) possible risk factors of minor central
nervous system dysfunction correlated with self-reported stuttering,
c) associated disorders, and d) depression symptoms in those who
reported self-stuttering. Results indicated that the presence of self-
reported stuttering may be associated with minor brain injury or
dysfunction, developmental dyslexia, word-finding problems,
language disorders, and/or depressive symptoms.
Back to index
Arjunan, K., Rousey, C.G., Rousey, C.L. (1986). Successful treatment of stuttering
following closed head injury.
JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 11, 257-261.
The purpose of this case study was to examine the effects of months of treatment after
a head injury. The 41 year old man was in a motor vehicle accident and suffered a cerebral
concussion and developed a severe stuttering disorder. After 16 weeks of speech therapy
consisting of: a slower speaking rate, use of sign language, reading and writing while
speaking. The speech therapy encouraged the use of intact functional systems to develop
a more fluent speaking ability. It is thought that underdetermined neurological factors
contributed to the stuttering. After the 16 weeks of therapy the patient did! achieve a
more fluent speaking ability.
Back to index
Armson, Joy; Kiefte, Michael; Mason, Jessica; & De Croos, Dayani.
(2006) The effect of SpeechEasy on stuttering frequency in
laboratory conditions. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, Volume
31, issue 2, 137-152.
The authors of this article investigated the benefits of the
SpeechEasy device in monologue, conversation speech as well as oral
reading. Research used thus far has been done on other devices such
as the DAF and AAF. The study was done in a laboratory setting to
examine the role of the SpeechEasy in reducing stuttering in
monologue and conversation as there primary interest. The device
was presented in two ways: Device only (participants wore devise
and the results were documented) and Device Plus (the participants
wore the device with instruction to begin with prolongation of
vowels). The results were more dramatic if they prolonged their
vowels. All participants had a reduction in at least one of the
speaking tasks. It is unknown how much impact the behavioral
change of vowel prolongation impacted the devices credibility. More
research is needed with a larger population to determine its
performance. It continues to be a tool available for therapy
techniques.
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Arndt, J. & Healey, E.C. (2001). Concomitant disorders in school-age
children who stutter. LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES
IN SCHOOLS, 32, 2, 68-78.
This article focused on determining the number of children who
stutter with verified and suspected concomitant phonological and
language disorders. Also, the study assessed the type of treatment
clinicians tend to use with these children. Survey Responses were
obtained from 241 ASHA-certified, school-based SLPs from ten states
that were considered to have similar state verification criteria for
fluency, articulation/phonology, and language disorders. Results
found that of the 467 children who stuttered who were reported on,
205 (44%) had verified concomitant phonological and/or language
disorders. This is an important finding for SLPs in the schools
because they need to be aware of the strong possibility that school-
aged children who stutter might have a phonological and/or language
disorder. Based on the findings, most clinicians use a blended
approach (treating both disorders simultaneously), when treating
these types of children.
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Arnold, H. S., Conture, E. G., & Ohde, R. N. (2005). Phonological
neighborhood density in the picture naming of young children
who stutter: Preliminary study. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 30, 125-148.
The purpose of this article was to evaluate what effect naming
phonologically dense and sparse words had on speed reaction time
and errors of preschool children who stutter (CWS) and preschool
children who did not stutter (CWNS). The examiners used two
groups of words that differed in phonological density. Phonological
density is determined by how many phonological neighbors a word
has. Phonological neighbors are words that differ by one phoneme
substitution, deletion or addition. The more neighbors a word has
the more dense it is considered. Data revealed both groups speech
reaction time was slower and less accurate when naming
phonologically dense words. Data also revealed no significant
difference between CWS and CWNS speed reaction times or number
of errors in relation to phonologically density of words.
Back to index
Armson, J., Jenson, S., Gallant, D., Kalinowski, J., & Fee., E.
(1997). The relationship between degree of audible struggle and
judgments of childhood disfluencies as stuttered or not stuttered.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY, 1, 42- 50.
This study investigated whether degree of audible struggle can be
used to categorically distinguish childhood stuttered disfluencies
from normal disfluencies. Thirty-one first year graduate students in
communication disorders participated. Speech samples were
collected from 12 children aged 33-59 months. Results indicated
that as the perception of degree of struggle increased, so did the
likelihood that the disfluent production would be judged as stuttered.
It is suggested that a rating scale for degree of struggle may be a
useful clinical tool for diagnosing childhood stuttering.
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Armson, J., & Kalinowski, J. (1994). Interpreting results of the
fluent speech paradigm in stuttering research: Difficulties in
separating cause from effect. JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 37, 69-82.
This paper is a review of past research studies and problems
encountered in a search for the cause of stuttering. Specifically
reviewed are studies that compare fluent speech of stutterers and
nonstutterers. The authors provide evidence which suggests that
measures of fluent speech of PWS may be influenced by the context
of speech samples, treatment history of subjects, stuttering severity
of subjects, and developmental history of stuttering. Alternative
methods of research are recommended. These methods include
comparison of the nonspeech motor function of stutterers and
nonstutterers, examination of conditions associated with increase and
decrease in stuttering, and study of the stuttering moment.
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Armson, J., & Stuart, A., (1998) Effect of Extended Exposure to Frequency-
Altered Feedback on Stuttering During Reading and Monologue. JOURNAL
OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 41, 479-490.
The fluency program outlined uses frequency altered auditory
feedback to decrease stuttering during both monologues and reading
tasks. Twelve adults who stutter spoke into a microphone that
increased or decreased their speech by one quarter octave before
returning it to the individual's headsets. Half of the participants
were chosen to receive an upward shift of _ octave and the other half
received downward shift. Reading tasks included reading from a set
of 22 passages while the monologue tasks allowed the individual to
chose a topic that would facilitate continuous monologue from a set
of 20 topics. Results indicated that the number of syllables increased
and percentage of stuttering decreased while performing the reading
tasks, whereas the monologue tasks recorded no notable changes in
these same areas.
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Atkins, C. P. (1988). Perceptions of speakers with minimal eye
contact: implications for stutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 13, 429-436.
The first objective of this study was to determine percentage
definitions of "good," "minimal," and "no" eye contact and the second
objective was to determine how others perceive speakers with little
or no eye contact. One hundred thirty-three college students
responded to a 60-item semantic differential seven-point scale,
which contained polarized adjective pairs regarding personality
traits. Prior to completing the semantic differential scale, students
circle percentages that they felt best described the degrees of eye
contact. The majority of the respondents judged a speaker with
"good" eye contact to look at his/her listener 90-100% of the time.
The speaker with no eye contact was perceived by the majority to
look 10% or less of the time. Minimal eye contact was judged to look
between 10-50% of the time. Speakers with little or no eye contact
were judged negatively on 70% of the personality traits presented.
The development of effective eye contact needs to be incorporated as
a major goal in stuttering therapy because it is important to the
manner in which the stutterer is perceived.
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Attanasio, J. S. (1987). A case of late-onset or acquired stuttering in adult life.
JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 12, 287-290.
A case report is presented of a 36 year old male who reports stuttering onset at age 29
years. The subject reports the stuttering began when he began experiencing marital
difficulties. The symptoms progressed gradually and consist of typical stuttering
symptoms. There is tension, anxiety, and concern over not being able to talk "normal."
There is a possible link between the stuttering and epilepsy which emerged when the
subject was 11 years old.
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Attanasio, JS. (1987). The Dodo was Lewis Carroll, You See: Reflections and
Speculations. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 2, 107-118.
Lewis Carroll, the pen name of Charles Ludwidge Dodgson, known as the author
of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass, suffered from
2 cases of communication disorders: hearing loss in his right ear and stuttering.
Carroll's own comments on his own speech indicated that he found it to be a problem
that interfered with his personal life. The author of this article speculates that much of
the nonsense, humor, and whimsy in Carroll's writing reflect what happens when
communication breaks down. He also speculates that much of what Carroll wrote
was based at least somewhat on his own conscious or unconscious experiences.
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Attanasio, J.S. (1997). Was Moses a person who stuttered? Perhaps
not. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 22, 65-68.
This essay argues that Moses was not a person who stuttered, but
rather he had an organic or structural communication disorder which
affected the intelligibility of his speech and his articulation.
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Attanasio, J.S., Onslow, M., & Packman, A. (1998). Representativeness
Reasoning and the Search for the Origins of Stuttering: A Return to Basic
Observations. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 23, 4, 265-277.
This article describes the different theories on the distal and proximal
causes of stuttering. Distal is defined as the reason for the existence of
stuttering (the underlying causes for the problem) whereas proximal causes try
to explain why stuttering can occur for an individual on a daily basis. A pattern
of representativeness heuristic is defined as a way to help organize the search
for the cause of stuttering by suggesting that the cause is seen in it's effects (the
effects resemble the causes that produce them). Anxiety as a cause is
emphasized as a key factor in representativeness reasoning. Also, models are
given as examples to explain that stuttering can be dynamic and have multi-
factorial implications on fluency. But, if stuttering appears complex and multi-
factorial it does not necessarily mean that its cause is complex and multi-
factorial. This heuristic and early stuttering is discussed by explanation of Ortin-
Travis' cerebral dominance theory, Johnson's diagnosogenic theory, and
Bloodstein's anticipatory struggle theory. Early repetitions are shown to be
beneficial in yielding information to formulate theories on stuttering. There is
no data available to prove that stuttering is an anticipatory struggle disorder. It
is suggested that recall Froeschel's and Bluemel's thoughts on the cause of
stuttering and incorporate representativeness heuristic to find the proximal
etiologies of the repetitions of early stuttering.
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Au-Yeung, J., Gomez, I. V., Howell, P. (2003). Exchange of disfluency with age from
function words to content
words in Spanish speakers who stutter. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND
HEARING RESEARCH,
46, 754-765.
The purpose of this study was to find if the progression of function word disfluency to
content word disfluency observed in English speakers who stutter as they age could also
be observed in Spanish speakers who stutter. The study involved 46 monolingual
speakers divided into five age groups from ages 3 to 68. Findings of this study support
that Spanish speakers who stutter also follow a similar course of disfluency change as
they develop. Covert repair hypothesis and EXPLAN theories as well as comparative
phonological complexity of English are discussed as possible causes for this trend.
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Au-Yeung, J., Howell, P., & Pilgrim, L. (1998). Phonological words and
stuttering on function words. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND
HEARING RESEARCH, 41, 1019-1030.
The main purpose of this study was to examine the stuttering rate of
function words in people who stutter while considering the phonological word as
well as the utterance position. Fifty-one subjects participated and were
subdivided into three different child groups (young- two to six years; middle-
six to nine years; and older- nine to twelve years), teenagers (thirteen to
eighteen years), and adults (twenty to forty years). Four separate, yet related,
analysis were performed. Analysis 1 examined the effect of word type (content
vs. function) on stuttering rate, Analysis 2 examined the effect of utterance
position on stuttering rate in content and function words, Analysis 3 examined
the specific position within phonological words on the stuttering rate in both
content and function words, and Analysis 4 examined the effect of the position
of the function word within a phonological word relative to the content word.
Results of Analysis 1 showed that younger speakers were more dysfluent on
function words than content words, and older speakers were more dysfluent on
content words than function words. Results of Analysis 2 showed that the
stuttering rate was higher in function words that were at the beginning of the
utterance than at other positions. However, the position of content words did
not seem to affect the rate of stuttering. Results of Analysis 3 showed that the
stuttering rate was higher for phonological word-initial function words than
function words in other positions. However, the stuttering rate did not vary
with changing position of content words within phonological words. Results of
Analysis 4 showed that the percentage of function words that are stuttered is
higher in the pre-content word position than in post-content word positions.
These authors concluded that stuttering on function words is dependent on
word-external factors, whereas stuttering on content words is dependent on
word-inherent factors.
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Au-Yeung, J., Howell, P., & Sackin, S. (2000). Internal Structure of
content words leading to lifespan differences in phonological
difficulty in stuttering. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 25, 1-
20.
This article discusses a study that investigated whether
stuttering frequency was affected by factors that determine
phonological difficulty and the variances across different age groups.
The age groups included children, teenagers, and adults. The study
evaluated content and function words and took into consideration
phonological factors such as late emerging consonants and consonant
strings. The results of the study showed that the frequency of
stuttering remained high for adults when late emerging consonants
and consonant strings were both present and when they occurred in
the initial position.
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Bailey W.R., (1982). Managing the environment of the stutter.
JOURNAL OF CHILDHOOD COMMUNICATION DISORDERS, 6, 26-39.
Bailey and Bailey explain that many factors have been linked to
the disruption of fluency in children. Lack of language facility or
oral-motor coordination may contribute, also the structure and
harmony in the child's environment can play a significant role in
acquiring fluency. This article presents suggestions for parents and
teachers of young children who are having difficulties managing
fluency. The authors list two general guidelines for helping with
childhood fluency. 1. Direct intervention and modeling procedures
will promote fluent speech, 2. The child's environment will promote
fluent speech The authors give guidelines for parents and teachers to
remember when working with a child who is showing some fluency
breakdowns. Create and environment which is rich in
encouragement and respect, be a good listener, get down to eye level
when talking with the child, insure the child has had enough rest,
and eliminate time pressures as frequently as possible.
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Bajaj, A. (2007). Working memory involvement in stuttering:
Exploring the evidence and research implications. JOURNAL OF
FLUENCY DISORDERS, 32, (3), 218-238.
Empirical evidence that supports the correlation between
working memory and stuttering, along with the link between the
two, are the main topics of discussion within this article. The
intention of this articles content is to look into the research dealing
with verbal working memory, where phonological storage,
phonological retrieval and the execution of speech have been
examined more intensely than in stuttering research. An outline of
Bradley's (2003) model, with research and support on short-term
memory along with the similarities that link verbal working memory
to stuttering are proposed. Overall, working memory is crucial to the
process of phonological encoding within our speech and language and
imperative to higher level cognition.
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Bajaj, A., Hodson, B., & Schommer-Aikins, M. (2004). Performance on
phonological and grammatical awareness metalinguistic tasks by children
who stutter and their fluent peers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 29, 63-77.
The purpose of this study is to look at metalinguistic skills, including
phonological awareness and grammatical awareness, of children who stutter
(CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS). Twenty-three CWS and
23 CWNS participated in the study. The results indicated that CWS do not
have deviant phonological awareness skills when compared to their peers
who do not stutter. On the grammar judgment task the CWS had scores
that were significantly lower that CWNS. However, this could be due to
the co-morbid disorders present in 8 of the CWS. This study indicates that
CWS do not have metalinguistic skills below that of their peers.
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Bajaj, A., Hodson, B., & Westby, C. (2005). Communication ability
conceptions among children who stutter and their fluent peers:
A qualitative exploration. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS
30(1), 41-64
The current study employed qualitative methods to study the
criteria used by 23 male children with stuttering (CWS) and their
fluently speaking peers in describing meatalinguistic behaviors
which were positive and negative and the participants' self-
appraisals as communicators. Verbally-descriptive data form
participants was collected by conducting interviews which were then
analyzed and transcribed. On transcription thematic categories were
identified which formed the bases for group comparisons. The
outcome of the study provides evidence that for CWS, good and bad
talkers endowed or were lacking principally in fluent, articulate,
grammatical, or otherwise vocally proficient behaviors. In contrast
CWNS made use of diverse criteria to attend adequately to speakerıs
speech-language forms and pragmatic behaviors in positive
descriptions and gave slight precedence to pragmatic behaviors in
negative descriptions. In conclusion it is evident form this study that
early conception of communicative abilities among CWS depend upon
their stuttering experiences and differ form those communicative
abilities of their age matched peers.
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Baker, K, Brutten, G. J. & McQuain, J. (1995). A preliminary
assessment of the validity of three instrument-based measures for
speech rate determination. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 20(1),
63-76.
The validity of three instrument-based measures with regard to a
potential for implementation in automated procedures for speech
rate determination is assessed. Correctional analysis reveals that
automated counts of stressed syllables are strongly predictive of live
and transcription-based syllable counts. Subsequent studies
demonstrate that the number of pauses represent a separate unique
dimension. Finally, automated stressed-syllable counts are most
promising for clinical applications targeting speech rate modification.
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Bakker, K. (1995). Two supplemental scoring procedures for
diagnostic evaluations with the Speech Situations Checklist.
JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 20 (2), 117-126.
The purpose of this article was to expand the traditional use of the
Speech Situations Checklist with two new scoring procedures.
Analyzing a client's response may help in assessing the nature of
stutterer's speech concerns. Therefore, implementing the analysis can
provide the client with a systematic hierarchy of speech situations.
The article contains several tables which show the results of
stutterer's responses to the Speech Situation Checklist.
Back to index
Bakker, K. (1996) Cluttering: Current scientific status and emerging
research and clinical needs. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 21
(3/4), 359-365.
This article attempts to give the best possible answers to questions
on how the identifying characteristics and associated
symptomatologies of cluttering need to be measured. It discusses
the issue of whether or not cluttering exists in its own right, whether
or not it is a result exclusively of coexisting perceptuomotor and
cognitive anomalies, or a result of both factors.
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Barasch, CT., Guitar, B., McCauley, RJ., Absher, RG. (2000). Disfluency
and time perception. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND
HEARING RESEARCH, 43, 1429-1439.
This study compared the ability of stuttering and nonstuttering
adults to estimate protensity and to distinguish the relative lengths
of short tones. They also examined whether there is a correlation
between a person's degree of disfluency and the ability to measure
protensity or judge the relative length of short tones. Twenty
stuttering adult subjects and twenty nonstuttering adult subjects
were given the Duration Pattern Sequence Test. A negative
correlation was found between degree of disfluency and ability to
determine the relative lengths of short tones. A positive correlation
was found between degree of disfluency and length of protensity
estimates.
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Belknap, H., Finn, P., Ingham, R.J., & Sato, W. (2001). The modification
of speech naturalness during rhythmic stimulation treatment of
stuttering. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 44, 4, 841-852.
The research article focused on a study in which the authors
investigated the modification of speech naturalness during stuttering
treatment. This particular study is a replication of a study done by
Ingham and Onslow (1985). The only difference between the two
being that the latter addressed the effect of using speech-
naturalness-rating feedback to increase as well as decrease the
speech-naturalness ratings of specific listeners. The study used three
people who stutter: two female adolescents and one adult male. The
data was collected by having the participants sit in sound-treated
rooms, wear headphones, and speak on topics of their choice. Each
participant completed ten 5-minute trials while using a metronome
stimulus. Two listeners sat outside the rooms and rated speech-
naturalness. Results for two of the participants showed that when
stuttering is reduced to near-zero levels during rhythmic stimulation,
it's possible to shape the person's speech into relatively natural
sounding speech. However, these results were not found in the adult
male.
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Bergmann, G. (1986). Studies in stuttering as a prosodic disturbance.
JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 29,
290-300.
The study described in this article includes two elements
regarding the ability of people who stutter (PWS) to produce prosodic
features in their speech. The first component studied the ability of
the subjects to place appropriate accent and stress patterns when
answering questions. Based on the tasks administered, PWS were
able to produce appropriate intonation patterns when compared to
fluent speakers. The second component of the study examined the
relation between stuttered words and stressed or unstressed
syllables. Because stuttered words were found significantly more
often on stressed syllables, results imply stuttering to be a
disturbance in prosody due to motor difficulty.
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Berkowitz, M., Cook, H., & Haughey, M.J. (1994). A non-traditional
fluency program developed for the public school setting.
LANGUAGE, SPEECH AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS, 25,
94-99.
This fluency program focuses on changing student and parental
attitudes about stuttering and helping the students gain control over
their speech. Student groups met once a week for 1.5 hours and
parent groups met one evening a month. The program evolved
through many phases with attitudinal issues being addressed before
trying to change behaviors. Results indicated improvements in
situational avoidance, attitude indicators of significance of stuttering,
and indicators of perception of severity. Improvements were also
made in frequency, duration, and physical concomitants of stuttering.
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Berstein Ratner, N. (1992). Measurable outcomes of instructions to
modify normal parent-child verbal interactions: Implications for
indirect stuttering therapy. JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING
RESEARCH, 35, 14-20.
This study looked at the differential effects of instructions to
slow maternal speech rate, or to slow and simplify maternal speech
when conversing with normally fluent children. Twenty normally
fluent children and their mothers participated in the study. The
instructions to simply slow parental speech rate resulted not only in
decreased speech rate, but also in significantly shorter and simpler
utterances. No significant differences were found between the
effects of the two sets of instructions. Also, the children's speech
rate and language complexity did not parallel the maternal
adjustments. These findings do not support the use of indirect
therapy in parental counseling.
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Bernstein Ratner, N. (1995). Language complexity and stuttering in
children. TOPICS IN LANGUAGE DISORDERS, 15 (3), 32-47.
The purpose of this article is to explore the connection between
stuttering moments and language formulation. Both clinical and
experimental research is reviewed. This research investigates the
impact of syntax, lexicon, and conversational demands as they relate
to stuttering moments. The frequency and location of the stuttering
moments within an utterance is also explored in these studies.
Although the relationship between language and stuttering is not yet
clearly understood, there are implications for assessment and
therapy planning which the author discusses in the article.
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Bernstein Ratner, N., & Silverman, S. (2000). Parental conceptions of
children's communication development at stuttering onset.
JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 43,
1252-1263.
This study focuses on the concept that there has been clinical
speculation that parents of young children who stutter have
expectations of their children's communication abilities that are not
well matched to the children's actual skills. They took 15 subjects
who were close to the onset of stuttering symptoms and analyzed
their language ability and 15 age, sex, and SES-matched fluent
children. Parents completed two parent-report measures of the
children's communication development. Results indicated generally
depressed performance on all child speech and language measures
by the children who stutter. Parent report was closely attuned to
child performance for the stuttering children; parents of
nonstuttering children were accurate in their predictions of
children's communicative performance. Implications for clinical
advisement to parents of stuttering children are discussed.
Back to index
Beverung, J., Jensen, P., Markel, N. (1986). Evidence of conversational disrhythmia in
stutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 11, 183-200.
The study was conducted to investigate if people who stutter have different non-verbal
communication styles, frequency of eye contact, difference in body movement, and turn
taking, in comparison to people who do not stutter. The examiners hypothesized that
more than dysfluencies are involved in the stuttering disorder. The subjects were nine
people who stutter and a control group that consisted personal friends to the person who
stutters. The subjects completed a word association task, in which, the subjects were to
repeat words from a list during video recordings. The video recordings were analyzed and
provided that people who stutter maintain less eye contact, experience more body
movement, and are one second quicker to respond in reference to latency.
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Black, J. A. (1987). A comparative study of the perception of freedom-in-leisure between
stuttering and nonstuttering individuals. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 12,
239-248.
This study tested the hypothesis that stutterers have less freedom in leisure than non-
stutterers. The subjects of the study were stuttering and non-stuttering members of the
National Stuttering Project. Results indicated no significant difference in level of
perceived freedom in leisure, but that stuttering members perceived barriers to freedom in
leisure.
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Blair, C., & Smith, A. (1986). EMG recording in human lip muscles: Can
single muscles be isolated? JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING
RESEARCH. 29, 256-266.
Electromyography (EMG) is a way to record the electrical
activity of muscles. This article looks at the possibility of individual
perioral lip muscles being isolated through the use of EMG and if the
ability to do so is important. Overall, the possibility of isolation is
low. Also, this article implies that EMG studies are not appropriate
because the structural makeup of the lip is too complicated and the
muscle fibers do not have homogeneous mechanical action.
Back to index
Blanchet, P. (2006). Using delayed auditory feedback to treat fluency
and speech rate in individuals with Parkinsonıs disease:
Specific clinical considerations. JOURNAL OF STUTTERING,
ADVOCACY, AND RESEARCH, 1(3), 94-101.
This article follows-up a previous article, also done by Blanchet
and Hoffman (2006). The use of delayed auditory feedback (DAF)
devices allows the client to prolong each syllable or word. Research
pertaining to the use of DAF for speakers with Parkinsonıs disease
(PD) is limited. However, the limited research implies that DAF may
be used to improve effective rate control, along with improvements
on speech intensity, pitch, and sometimes intelligibility (if the
appropriate delay interval is found). To facilitate optimal
improvements/effectiveness, clinicians should provide instruction,
model correct DAF usage, and provide feedback. The author discusses
strengths and weaknesses when a client with PD decides to use a
DAF. For a client with PD, his/her speech rate may increase due to
the limited neuromuscular capabilities; intelligibility maybe
compromised. The "first word dilemma" or the inability to initiate
phonation for the PD client may also be compromised. The clinician
should be thoroughly involved with the client with PD when
introducing DAF.
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Blanchet, P. (2006) Treating fluency and speech rate disorders in
individuals with Parkinson's Disease: The use of delayed
auditory feedback. THE JOURNAL OF STUTTERING THERAPY,
ADVOCACY AND RESEARCH, Vol. 1, Issue 2.
http://www.journalofstuttering.com/ListofArticles.html
This article reviews literature examining the effect of using
delayed auditory feedback (DAF) to treat speech rate and fluency
disorders related to Parkinson's Disease. This effect was most
dramatic in those who experienced hypokinetic dysarthria, where
slowing speech rate alone produced significant improvements in
intelligibility. With proper education, modeling and feedback from
the clinician, results indicate that DAF could useful for slowing
speech rate in people with Parkinson's Disease, which resulted in
fewer disfluencies in their speech production and increased
intelligibility.
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Blomgren, M., Nagarajan, SS., Lee, JN., Li, T., & Alvord, L. (2003). Preliminary results
of a functional MRI study of brain activation patterns in stuttering and nonstuttering
speakers during a lexical access task. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 28,
337-356.
The purpose of this study was to use functional MRI (fMRI) measures to compare brain
activation patterns of normally fluent speakers and those of PWS, with regard to lexical
access tasks. A total of sixteen adults, aging from 19 to 38, participated in this study. Of
the sixteen, seven were people who stuttered. All participants took part in a lexical access
task during the fMRI. The task consisted of word descriptions (nouns and verbs),
presented through headphones. The participants were instructed to "think" of the word
being described. The fMRI measures were done to compare the activation patterns while
the participants were "thinking" of the word. Results indicated large activation variances
within the two groups. The participants in the stuttering group displayed increased right
hemisphere activation in right Broca's and Wernicke's areas, as compared to the
nonstuttering group. However, between-group comparisons yielded no significant
differences.
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Blomgren, M., Smith, A.B., & Wolk, L. (2000). The frequency of
simultaneous disfluency and phonological errors in children: a
preliminary investigation. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 25,
269-281.
The co-occurrence of stuttering and phonological disorders in seven
English specking children was studied. Speech samples were
collected and analyzed. All occurrences of stuttering were identified
and coded as to whether a phonological error was present. Results
indicate the frequency of disfluency on syllables with phonological
errors was similar to those utterances produced without errors.
However, the frequency of dysfluency on initial consonant clusters
with phonological errors was higher than on initial consonant clusters
without phonological errors.
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Blomgren, M., Roy, N., Callister, T., & Merrill, R.M. (2005). Intensive
stuttering modification therapy: A multidimensional
assessment of treatment outcomes. JOURNAL OF SPEECH,
LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 48, 509-522.
This article focuses on adults who participated in the Successful
Stuttering Management Program (SSMP) during a 3-week intensive
period to assess stuttering before, immediately after, and 6 months
after treatment. Nineteen individuals who stutter (15 males and 4
females) and were enrolled in two sessions of the SSMP volunteered
for this study. Data on the individuals was collected through audio
and video using speech samples during an oral reading task and
through spontaneous speech as well as inventories and questionnaires
resulting in very high reliability coefficients (p<.0001) in both tasks.
However, results show that the SSMP was ineffective in reducing core
behaviors, such as stuttering frequency and severity.
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Blood, G.W. (1993) Treatment efficacy in adults who stutter: Review
and recommendations. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 18, 303-
318.
The author of this article discusses the question, "Does
stuttering therapy work?" He looks at three predictive factors for
therapy success; client variables, clinician variables, and treatment
variables. Some client variables include; motivation, expectations,
locus of control, gender, intelligence, anxiety, education, social class,
and previous therapy experiences. Clinician variables include; age,
experience, empathy, expectations, knowledge, and locus of control
among others. The length of therapy, degree of cognitive
restructuring, and the issue of process versus outcome are all
treatment variables which are discussed. Finally the author discusses
the need for a standardized set of outcome measures.
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Blood, G. W., et al. (1994). Subjective anxiety measurements and
cortisol responses in adults with stutter, JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND
HEARING RESEARCH, 37 (4), 761-768.
This study measures anxiety by self-report and salivary cortisol
levels. The authors attempt to use cortisol, a hormone, to measure
autonomic anxiety levels. The results of the study of 11 males who
stutter and 11 males who do not stutter show an increase of a
different proportion in cortisol levels in the stuttering group than
in the non-stuttering group. The authors conclude that the
anticipation of stress triggers this physiological hormonal response
in PWS. The relationship between the self-report and cortisol levels
reveals that there was no correlation between cortisol response and
the subjects behavior in either group. The authors conclude that
subjective anxiety and communicative apprehension do not relate to
hormonal response.
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Blood, G. W. (1995). A behavioral-cognitive therapy program for
adults who stutter: Computers and counseling. JOURNAL OF
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS, 28, 165-180.
The treatment program presented addresses three components of
stuttering: the speech behavior, the feelings and the thoughts. The
speech is monitored using a computer-assisted biofeedback program
called CAFET, which measures airflow noninvasively. Feelings and
thoughts are addressed and reshaped using Blood's POWER2 relapse
management program. An outline of this treatment program and the
results (based on single subject multiple baseline across subjects
design on four adult males) are provided and discussed.
Establishment and maintenance of improved fluency is documented
up to 12 months post treatment.
Back to index
Blood, G. (1995). POWER2: Relapse management with adolescents who
stutter. LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN THE
SCHOOLS, 26, 169-179.
This article presents a study which assessed the effectiveness of
the POWER2 relapse management program. Designed for adolescents,
the POWER is a board game that facilitates discussion about coping
with interpersonal conflict, social pressure, and coping with negative
emotional states in a fun, nonthreatening way. The study included
three phases; intensive speech therapy, supportive counseling and
relapse management, and a 6 and 12 month follow-up. The results
showed a reduction in stuttering to within normal levels, a reduction
in negative feelings, and an inward shift of locus of control. The
follow-up indicated that the positive changes persisted one year past
treatment. The authors suggest that counseling adolescents who
stutter about changing speech behavior, negative emotions, and
maladaptive attitudes can result in lasting fluency
beyond therapy.
Back to index
Blood, G. & Blood, I. (1989). Laterality preferences in adult female
and male stutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 14, 1-10.
This study was to determine the ear preferences for groups of
stuttering and non-stuttering males and females on a dichotic word
task. Subjects responded to a 36-item word test. The study found
stutterers' ear advantages were not as strong as the non-stutterers,
non-stutterers had a higher right ear preference, severe female
stutterers showed more left ear responses than mild stutterers, and
there was no significant difference found between male and female
stutterers.
Back to index
Blood, GW., & Blood, IM. (1989). Multiple data analyses of dichotic
listening advantages of stutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 14, 97-107.
This study focuses on the data analysis of dichotic listening
tasks in relation to cerebral dominance and stuttering disorders.
Previous research has been conflicting as to whether or not
differences exist between stutterers and nonstutterers. These
conflicts may have occurred from a number of different variables
including severity of stuttering, age and sex of the subjects and type
of stimuli. This study is concerned with the variable of data analysis.
The authors used five data analysis methods to analyze the results
obtained from twenty subjects who were given the Dichotic Listening
Test.
The subjects were asked to listen to the syllables being
presented and point to the correct one on the card in front of them.
Results showed that only one of the five analyses showed a
statistically significant difference between the two groups. This
suggests that depending on the type of analysis used, the number
and percentage of left and right dominant people may vary. The
results of this study can serve as a caution to experimenters if they
use only group data and rely heavily on statistical information.
Back to index
Blood, GW & Blood, M. (2004). Bullying in adolescents who stutter:
Communicative competence and self-esteem. CONTEMPORARY
ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION SCIENCE AND DISORDERS, 31, 69-
79.
Bullying can result in serious and negative long-term outcomes. This study
looks at (a) the relationship between social and communication skills in
adolescents, (b) the negative effects of bullying and (c) the possible
relationship between bullying and stuttering. First, Blood and Blood look
at past studies which have shown that adolescents who either perceive
themselves as "different " or are thought of as "being different " by others
because of a lack or absence of using social and communication skills with
peers may be more likely to be bullied. These past studies have also shown
that children who are bullied may develop long-term psychosocial and
physical health problems. They also have trouble sleeping, low self-esteem,
show signs of depressions, a loss of confidence and greater social isolation
among other things. It has also been noted adolescents who stutter are three
times as likely to be bullied. This study done by Blood and Blood shows
similar results. The current study shows that adolescents who stutter are at
a greater risk for being bullied. Another important finding is that bullying
does have negative effects on an adolescent's self-esteem. In the current
study, the numbers are higher for this than in past studies. One other
important finding from this study is that there is a relationship between an
adolescent's communicative competence and their risk of being bullied.
Back to index
Blood, G., W., Blood, I., M., Maloney, K., Meyer, C., Qualls, C., D. (2007).
Anxiety levels in adolescents who stutter. JOURNAL OF
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS, 40, 452-469.
Living with a disability can have a negative influence on
individuals. This study was conducted in order to examine
physiological and emotional anxiety in people who stutter in order to
assist clinicians and researchers in treatment planning and
techniques used in schools and clinics. Thirty-six students who
stutter were included in the study. Upon data collection and analysis
it was found that significant levels of anxiety between those who do
stutter and those who do not were evident, however, both within
normal limits. No significant differences were noted on the self-
esteem scale and no significant differences were found between
ethnic groups, socioeconomic class, gender and anxiety levels.
Significantly higher levels of anxiety were noted in adolescents who
stutter with co-occurring disorders compared to adolescents who
stutter with no co-occurring disorders.
Back to index
Blood, GW., Blood, IM., & Hood SB. (1987). The Development of Ear Preferences in
Stuttering and Nonstuttering Children: A Longitudinal Study. JOURNAL OF
FLUENCY DISORDERS, 2, 119-131.
This study examined changes in young male stuttering and nonstuttering children
ages 7-9 over a 3-year period. The purpose of this study was to determine if
differences existed between stutterers and nonstutterers over a small period of time
and to determine if a relationship existed between the child's fluency and changes in
ear preference over time. Results suggested that stuttering and nonstuttering children
present a significant right ear advantage in the initial, second, and third time of testing.
This study supports the notion that stuttering and nonstuttering children present
similar developmental trends for dichotic ear preferences.
Back to index
Blood, G.W., Blood, I.M., McCarthy, J., Tellis, G. & Gabel, R. (2001). An
analysis of Verbal Response Patterns of Charles Van Riper During
Stuttering Modification Therapy. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS,
26:2, 129-147.
The introduction to this article focuses on the counseling aspect of
fluency disorders. This article explains many authors beliefs, but the
one belief that is shared by them is that the one factor of influencing
the effectiveness of counseling in fluency therapy is the clinician and
client relationship.
The present study discussed is one by Charles Van Riper. The
purpose of the study was to examine the quantity and type of verbal
responses during demonstration therapy sessions videotaped from
beginning to end. The method used was 7 commercially available
Charles Van Riper: Therapy in Action videotapes were used. These
videos included Van Ripers therapy program, and was conducted on
an 18 year old male university student. These videos were
evaluated by 10 trained raters. The verbal response patterns were
analyzed in accordance to the Hill Counselor Verbal Response
Category System (1993), which involves 9 categories of counsel or
verbal response behavior (Approval, Providing Information, Direct
Guidance, Closed Question, Open Question, Paraphrase, Interpretation,
Confrontation, and Disclosure).
The findings were: (1) When the client, compared Van Riper,
produced a greater percentage of verbal responses during all therapy
sessions. (2) Van Riper consistently spoke more often than the client
during interaction in therapy. (3) The highest response patterns
while conducting therapy were those of Van Riper (Direct Guidance,
Providing Information. and Close Question). (4) Close Question,
Paraphrasing, and Providing Information were what Van Riper
primarily used for verbal response patterns. (5) Paraphrasing was
mainly used during the diagnostic session.
The discussion discusses how the observations of verbal response
skills used by Van Riper during his therapy stages support his
therapy approach. Examples of the categories from the Manual for
Hill Counselor Verbal Response Category System-taken from Van
Riper's transcripts are provided at the end of the study.
Back to index
Blood, G., Blood, I., Newton, K. (1986). Simultaneous and staggered dichotic word and
digit tests with stutterers and nonstutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS,
11, 201-216.
The purpose of the study was to focus on dichotic digit stimuli in comparison to
people who stutter and people who do not stutter. The article was an ongoing study
which investigates the relationship between auditory functioning and stuttering. Nine
people who stutter from Ohio and Indiana were matched with a person, of the same age,
who does not stutter. The subjects were assessed using four dichotic listening tests:
Staggered Spondaic Word (SSW) Test, Staggered Digit Simultaneous (SDS) Test,
Staggered Digit Offset (SDO) Test, and Staggered Paired Digit (SPD! ) Test. The results
indicated that there were differences between the control group and experimental groups
within these tests: SDS, SDO, and SPD. The results for the Staggered Spondaic Word
Test were the same for both groups.
Back to index
Blood, G. W., Blood, I. M., Tellis, G., & Gabel, R. (2001). Communication
apprehension and self-perceived communication competence in adolescents who
stutter. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 26, 161-178.
This study examined the communication apprehension and self-perceived
competence of thirty-nine adolescents who stuttered and thirty-nine adolescents who
did not stutter. The study utilized two standard communication measures: the
Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) and the Self-Perceived
Communication Competence (SPCC). Results of the study suggested that adolescents
who stutter have greater apprehension of communication than those who do not
stutter, especially during group discussions and interpersonal conversations.
Adolescents who stutter also exhibit poorer self-perceived communication
competence than their normally fluent peers, particularly during group discussions,
interpersonal conversations, and when talking with strangers. The article also
discussed the need to specifically address communication apprehension in stuttering
therapy sessions.
Back to index
Blood, G. W., Blood, I. M., Tellis, G. M., & Gabel, R. M. (2003). A preliminary study
of self-esteem, stigma,
and disclosure in adolescents who stutter. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 2,
143-159.
This study examined the self-esteem, perceived stigma, and disclosure practices of 48
adolescents who stutter divided into two age groups: younger (13, 14, and 15 years) and
older (16, 17, and 18 years) adolescents. Results revealed that 41 of the participants
scored within one standard
deviation from the mean on a standardized measure of self-esteem, indicative of positive
self-esteem. Results also showed that stuttering did not present a stigmatizing condition
for the majority of adolescents who stutter. The younger adolescents perceived stuttering
as a more negative and stigmatizing condition than older adolescents.
Back to index
Blodgett, EG., & Cooper, EB. (1988). Talking about it and doing it:
metalinguistic capacity and prosodic control in three to seven year
olds. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 13, 283-290.
This study was conducted to assess the ability of 3 to 7 year old
children in using adjectives metaphorically. The area of
metalinguistic ability is important because speech-language
pathologists often make therapeutic use of metaphoric adjective with
children. The results of the study indicate that children may be able
to talk about prosodic aspects of speech patterns and yet unable to
change them. When therapy is used with very young disfluent
children, there might be a need to teach the language of fluency.
Back to index
Bloodstein, O. (1988). Verification of stuttering in a suspected
malingerer. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 13, 83-88.
This article reviews a legal case regarding robbery. The suspect
claimed to be innocent because he is a person who stutters. He said
he would not be able to fluently speak the words that the robber
spoke at the crime scene. The Brooklyn College Speech and Hearing
Center was contacted and asked to complete various tasks to
determine if the suspect was a malingering stutterer. The suspect
underwent repeated oral reading tasks, interview questions, and
binaural masking. Analysis of the suspects words stuttered in oral
reading revealed the adaptation, consistency and adjacency effects.
The suspects stuttering almost completely disappeared under white
noise and decreased with clinician feedback. Ultimately, the suspect
was found to be a true adult stutterer.
Back to index
Bloodstein, O. (1992). Response to Hamre: Part I. JOURNAL OF
FLUENCY DISORDERS, 17 (1-2) 29-32.
The purpose of the article is to provide a background of support for
the continuity and diagnosogenic hypotheses. Descriptive parallels
are given to show, how in many ways, stuttering is not always
clearly distinct from normally disfluent characteristics. As a result,
Bloodstein argues that there is need for preventive counseling with
parent's whose children are on the fringe of stuttering.
Back to index
Bloodstein, O. (1992). Response to Hamre: Part II. JOURNAL OF
FLUENCY DISORDERS, 17, 1 & 2, 85-86.
This is a commentary by Oliver Bloodstein in response to Curt
Hamre's article Stuttering Prevention II: Progression which is
contained in this same issue. Bloodstein explains why he thinks that
Hamre's portrayal of the continuity hypothesis as on extension of
Johnson's diagnosogenic theory is invalid. Bloodstein also clarifies a
quote of his that Hamre used in his article.
Back to index
Bloodstein, O. (1993). Communication attitudes of school-age
stutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 18 (4), 403-406.
A letter to the editor concerning the report by Vanryckeghem and
Brutten (1992) whose findings did not support Bloodstein's (1987)
contention that malattitudes toward speech generally are not formed
before high school age. Bloodstein clarified his results in the 1987
article. More specifically, he meant that because their attitudes and
reactions contrast so sharply with those of other stutterers, what he
terms as Phase II Stutterers will usually show little concern about
their speech difficulty.
Back to index
Bloodstein, O. (2001). Incipient and Developed Stuttering as Two
Distinct Disorders: Resolving a Dilemma. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 26:1, 67-73.
Bloodstein discusses various characteristics and beliefs of
stuttering. Some of his terms and definitions are: Transient
stuttering, which is the difficulty a child may have in producing a
word or phrase. Persistent stuttering, which is a child or an adult
reaction to continual difficulty in producing words. Bloodstein also
gave examples of ephemeral interest in stuttering, such as: talking
until it dawns on the stutterer that he is fluently speaking, which
results in consistent stuttering; hypnotized to believe they no longer
stutter; visited with a SLP, until the stutterer realized the profession
of the listener, then stuttered continuously thereafter; some people
stutter on "p" words, and even have trouble with words such as
"photo" "Philip".
Genetic factors addressed were: those most susceptible to
stuttering are identical twins and those children who has a first
degree relative that stutters. Incipient stuttering and persistent
form of stuttering were also discussed.
Evidence of genetic contributions to stuttering doesn't conflict with
the knowledge of the conditions under which stuttering varies. It is
believed it may lye more motorically, or motor controlled speech.
Back to index
Bloodstein, O. (2006). Some empirical observations about early
stuttering: A possible link to language development. JOURNAL
OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS, 39, (3), 185-191.
Early stuttering, also known as incipient stuttering, is detected
very early on in a child, as early as preschool age. There is a
collection of observations within this article that clinicians should
take into consideration when identifying stuttering in young
children. They include: early stuttering occurs regularly on the first
word of a syntactic structure; incipient stuttering frequently involves
function words; incipient stuttering does not emerge from the
influence of word-related factors; early stuttering consists of whole-
word repetitions; incipient stutterers seldom stutter on one-word
utterances; stuttering is reported at 18 months old or later; syntax is
acquired at 2-5 years old, around the same time as stuttering is
reported; spontaneous recovery occurs with early detection of
stuttering early on; boys who stutter outnumber girls among
incipient stutterers. Each observation within the article is described
in detail relating to incipient stuttering how it affects children at
such a young age.
Back to index
Blomgren, M., Robb, M., & Chen, Y. (1998). A note on vowel centralization in
stuttering and nonstuttering individuals. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE,
AND HEARING RESEARCH, 41, 1042-1051.
The purpose of this study was to obtain more information concerning the
steady state formant frequency characteristics of people who stutter. In
particular, formant centralization in the fluent vowel productions of individuals
who stutter was examined. Fifteen adult men participated and were divided
into three groups: the first group consisted of five untreated stuttering
individuals, the second group consisted of five treated stuttering individuals, and
the third group consisted of five nonstuttering individuals who made up the
experimental control group. A series of consonant + vowel + /t/ syllables were
used as the speech sample and acoustic analysis was performed. Calculation of
vocal tract vowel space was obtained through three measures: the relative
spacing between formants one and two, the area within the F1/F2 triangle, and
the average Euclidean distance of each vowel from a predetermined central
location. Acoustic differences were noticed between the groups. The untreated
stuttering individuals tended to use a neutral vocal tract posture during fluent
CV/t/ productions, creating significantly greater vowel centralization.
Back to index
Boehmler, RM & Boehmler, SI. (1989) The cause of stuttering: What's
the question? JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 14, 447-450.
The many studies to determine the cause of stuttering have
shown only inconclusive results. The stuttering category may be to
broad to result in finding one cause. In therapy for stuttering, many
differentiations are made between different stuttering behaviors.
Separation of lingual and motor execution, and separation within
categories (such as three types of elemental repetitions,) are common
when diagnosing and treating an individual. The authors believe the
key to determining the cause of stuttering lies in appropriately asking
the correct research questions. Seeking the cause for individual
behavioral elements of stuttering, rather than finding a single cause
for a broad range of stuttering behaviors, may lead to an answer.
Back to index
Borden, G., Kim, D., & Spiegler, K. (1987). Acoustics of stop consonant-vowel
relationships during fluent and stuttered utterances. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 12, 175-184.
Acoustic duration measures were made on the stop-gap, voice onset time (VOT),
and vowel portions of the utterance [tu] in the context ³425² as spoken ten times or
more by five normal speakers, four mild stutterers, and four severe stutterers. The
present study was undertaken in order to analyze these absolute and relative acoustic
properties in the speech of adult stutterers. Tape recordings provided a sample of
187 instances of the CV /tu/ framed between the words ³four² and ³five², as in
³3425² and ³4253². The evaluations were made by two speech-language
pathologists and by the use of the Stuttering Severity Index and the reading and
conversational parts of the Stuttering Interview. The fluent utterances of the severe
stutterers were significantly longer than those of normal speakers on stop-gap and
vowel durations but not on voice onset times. Normal speakers and mild stutterers
showed an inverse relationship between stop-gap and VOT measures across
speakers, but severe stutterers did not maintain this relationship for either fluent or
stuttered tokens, nor did a mild stutterer suspected of covert stuttering. Abnormal
gap to VOT ratios may serve to detect covert stuttering. The subjectıs
consonant/vowel ratios were not significantly different from normal even though
two of them were at least twice a slow as the normal speakers.
Back to index
Bosshardt, H. (1990). Subvocalization and reading rate differences
between stuttering and nonstuttering children and adults.
JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING RESEARCH, 33, 776-785.
The author of this study examined the oral reading and silent
reading rates of children and adults to determine whether stutterers'
subvocalize more slowly than nonstutterers and therefore require
more time for production of fluent speech. The subjects included 59
children (27 stutterers and 32 nonstutterers) and 39 adults (18
stutterers and 21 nonstutterers). The task included reading, either
silently or orally, an article and noun from a computer screen and
then pressing a button to make the words disappear. The results
indicate that the stutterers presentation times for both and silent
productions were significantly longer than the nonstutterers'
presentation times.
Back to index
Bosshart, H.G. (1993). Differences between stutterers' and
nonstutterers' short-term recall and recognition performance.
JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING RESEARCH, 36, 286-293.
The present study was done in a attempt to determine the
relationship between overt and subvocal speech rates of stutterers
and nonstutterers and their effects on short term memory. It has
already been shown that for nonstuttering speakers, the duration of
speech is the same vocally and subvocally. It was hypothesized that
PWS have slower subvocalic rates and consequently, their short term
memory (STM) would be impaired in tasks that require silent
rehearsal. The results indicated that PWS did show a short-term
reproduction performance inferior to that of nonstuttering speakers.
The results were interpreted to mean that nonstuttering speakers
encode syllables more distinctly and form more associations, images
and language mediators. No differences were interpreted to mean
that stutterers and nonstutterers use differing coding strategies.
Back to index
Bosshardt, Hans-Georg (2002) Effects of concurrent cognitive processing on the
fluency of word repetition: comparison between persons who do and do not
stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 27, 93-114
This study examined how silent reading and word memorization effects the fluency
of concurrently repeated words. Fourteen adults who stutter and 16 adults with
normal fluency were matched for age, education, sex, forward and backward memory
span, and vocabulary. Results indicate that a person who stutters has greater
disfluencies on the presented task. The fluent speakers showed little significant
changes in fluency on the same tasks.
Back to index
Bosshardt, H., Ballmer, W., & Nil, L. F. de. (2002). Effects of category and rhyme
decisions on sentence
production. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH,
5, 844-857.
The aim of this experiment was to investigate differences between people who stutter
and people who do not stutter during the production of sentences in a single task versus
two dual-task conditions. Participants were required to form a sentence containing 2
unrelated nouns. In dual-task conditions, rhyme and category decisions were used as
secondary tasks. The results for 14 adults who stutter and 16 adults who do not stutter
indicated that both groups reduced the average number of correct rhyme and category
decisions when this task was performed concurrently with sentence generation and
production. Overall, the results support the view that the organization of the speech-
production system of people who stutter makes it more vulnerable to interference from
concurrent attention-demanding semantic tasks.
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Bosshardt, H., & Fransen, H. 1996. Online Sentence Processing in
Adults Who Stutter and Adults Who do not Stutter. JOURNAL OF
SPEECH AND HEARING RESEARCH, 39, 4 785-797
This purpose of this study was to , 1) determine if people who
stutter encode phonological and semantic information more slowly
than people who do not stutter during a silent reading task, and 2)
observe how syntactic complexity of a sentence effects the speed of
encoding. Subjects were 14 adult stutterers and 14 adult non-
stutterers. Silent reading tasks were self paced and included target
words the subjects were to monitor. Analysis of the results indicates
that although the two groups did not differ in speed of word
identification, people who stutter access semantic meaning more
slowly.
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Bosshardt, H., and Nandyal, I. (1988). Reading rates of stutterers and
nonstutterers during silent and oral Reading. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 13, 407-420.
This study investigated the differences between the reading rates
of stutterers and nonstutterers during both silent and oral reading of
fluently spoken words. The stutterer group consisted of 10 adults
that reported onset of stutter during childhood and rated as being
mild to severe during reading by a speech pathologist. The
nonstutterer group consisted of 14 adults. Half the stutterer group
had completed their high-school education, and the other half had
completed a primary school education. All the nonstutterers
completed high school. All subjects were told that they had to
silently and orally read two lists of words as quickly as possible. The
test words appeared on a monitor one at a time and after the
subjects read a word, they had to press a key for the next word to
appear on the screen. Oral readings were audiotaped and response
time between word read and striking the key for the next
presentation was also registered. Results of this study show that in
oral reading trials, the stutterers required more time for both silent
and oral reading. Oral reading times decreased over trials in both
groups as a practice effect.
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Bothe, A. (2002). Speech modification approaches to stuttering treatment in schools.
SEMINARS IN SPEECH AND LANGUAGE, 23, 181-185.
Speech modification approaches to treatment are based on a known fluency
condition and have a main purpose to teach the client to speak in a manner that will
not include stuttering. The focus of this paper is on four approaches to speech
modification. The most common of these is variations on prolonged speech in which
the client uses variations of prolonged speech, smooth speech, easy speech or similar
approaches. The controlled length approach has the child practice fluent speaking at a
linguistically simplified level with gradual increases in length and complexity. Also
included is the response-contingent program which is based on the clinician pointing
out incorrect and correct responses. The final approach is a mixed one combining
elements from various approaches. The article also provides information to aid the
clinician in identifying and dealing with challenges he/she may face.
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Bothe, A. K. (2003). Evidence-based treatment of stuttering: V. The art of clinical
Practice and the future of clinical
research. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 28, 247-258.
The author of this article states that clinical practice and evidence-based treatment can
coincide with each other and provide structure for future research in stuttering. Evidence-
based treatment and the art of clinical setting are similar in that they both combine clinical
research, clinician expertise, and client goals and desires to provide clients with the most
effective and efficient treatment. These three components lead to future clinical research
in stuttering. Evidence-based research will help clinicians choose the most effective
treatment for their client. For clinician expertise, future research could examine clinicians'
decision-making process and the relationship among client variables, desired outcomes,
and treatment approaches. For client preference, future research could focus on carefully
designed surveys to find clients' goal for therapy (attitude, speech).
Back to index
Bothe, A. K. (2003). Evidence-based treatment of stuttering: V. the art
of clinical practice and the future of clinical research. JOURNAL OF
FLUENCY DISORDERS, 28, 247-258.
This article describes the similarities between evidence-based practice and
the art of clinical practice. It also explains how evidence-base practice
provides structure for future research in stuttering and finally, it discusses
the importance of evidence-based research to stuttering intervention.
Evidence-based practice combines several elements including asking a client
specific clinical question that will best achieve a desired outcome, focusing
on identifying and evaluating published research as a basis for clinical
decisions, combining information from research with clinical experience,
and finally collecting information about whether these treatments are
helping clients meet their goals. Bothe (2003) describes the art of clinical
practice as, "the clinicians ability to balance, multiple, constantly changing
sources of information in a dynamic, client centered attempt to help
individuals and their loved ones." There is very little difference between
the art of clinical practice and evidence-based practice they both include
elements that provide the client with effective treatment. Evidence-based
practice can be useful for treatment in stuttering by examining research that
has already been done in this area. Some research has more support than
others and these are the treatments that should be used more frequently.
Evidence-based practice means basing clinical decisions on research
evidence along with the clinician's experiences and the client! 's preferences.
Back to index
Bothe, A., K., Davidow, J., H., Bramlett, R., E., Ingham, R., J. (2006).
Stuttering treatment research 1970-2005: I. Systematic
review incorporating trail quality assessment of behavioral,
cognitive, and related approaches. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF
SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY, 15, 321-341.
This journal article involves the findings of a systematic
review. Specifically, the purpose of the systematic review was to find
a much needed bank of published literature on treatment for
developmental stuttering of preschoolers, school-age children,
adolescents and adults. Criteria for the review consisted of 162
English articles published between 1970 and 2005. Data bases
included Medline, Web of Science, PsychINFO and ComDisDome.
Searches included the terms 1) stuttering, 2) fluency, 3) therapy, 4)
treatment and 5) management. All analyses were descriptive and of
trial quality focusing on the number of criteria met in the
methodological and outcome criterion. Results of the systematic
review showed that specific evidence acquired clearly found that
many treatment types currently being used are ineffective and do
not meet specific goals and therefore should not be recognized as
viable options for stuttering therapy.
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Bothe, A. K., Davidow, J. H., Bramlett, R. E., Franic, D. M., & Ingham, R.
J. (2006). Stuttering treatment research 1970-2005: II.
Systematic review incorporating trial quality assessment of
pharmacological approaches. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH-
LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY, 15, 342-352.
This article provides an updated review of the research on
pharmacological treatments for stuttering. Thirty-one articles were
analyzed based on 5 methodological criteria and 4 outcomes criteria
which were described in part I of this series review. Out of the 31
articles reviewed, there were not any with results that didn't have
any complicating factors. Only one article showed evidence of a less
than 5% reduction of stuttering frequency and another 4 articles that
were reviewed noted stuttering characteristics that decreased in half.
Overall, this review determined that there were not any
pharmacological approaches that significantly decreased frequency of
stuttering, reduced the amount of person's stuttering in half, or
improved any personal aspects such as social, emotional or cognitive.
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Bothe, A.K., & Ingham, R.J. (2001). Recovery from early stuttering:
Additional issues within the Onslow and Packman-Yairi and
Ambrose (1999) exchange. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND
HEARING RESEARCH, 44, 4, 862-867.
This article was written in response to the 1999 exchange between
Onslow and Packman-Yairi and Ambrose. The purpose of this letter
was to discuss three remaining interrelated issues that Bothe and
Ingham felt deserved more attention if the points of disagreement
are to be resolved. The three issues are determining the presence
and effects of treatment, identification of proximal variables within
the Illinois Studies, and using SLDs instead of measures of stuttering.
Bothe's and Ingham's response to each of these is as follows: 1)
repeated sampling in the children's natural environments might have
made it possible to determine whether introduction of treatment,
passage of time, both, or neither could be associated with changes in
children's stuttering, 2) the overlooked role of potentially important
proximal variables is also relevant to claims that recovery or
persistent stuttering may be inherited, and 3) SLDs are not
necessarily stutterings, and no thresholds can be established, in
either direction. The problem facing researchers is how the
interaction among these factors influences the disorder's variability,
including its persistence and recovery.
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Boutsen, F. (1995). A comparative study of stress timing of
stutterers and nonstutterers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 20
(2), 145- 155.
This author contends that the varying results of earlier studies
comparing fluent speech of stutterers and nonstutterers are the
result of methodological differences. This study assessed the affects
of two such differences by comparing the consonant duration and
voice onset time (VOT) in stressed and unstressed utterances of these
two groups while varying the levels of rhythm and phonetic context.
It also described the relationship between consonant duration
(through stopgap measures) and VOT. Twelve adult stutterers and 12
nonstutterers were presented 20 separate syllable sequences and
were instructed to stress specific words with the guidance of
metronomic beeps. Results found that the VOT of the stutters was
protracted during both stressed and unstressed conditions. This
supports earlier findings that there are physio-acoustic differences
in the fluent speech of the two groups. A systematic relationship
between stopgap and VOT was found only in the nonstutterers. This
suggests that persons who stutter have "subtle difficulties in
controlling and stabilizing the temporal coordinations between
supraglottal and laryngeal structures"(p. 151).
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Boutsen, F., Brutten, G., Watts, C. (2000). Timing and Intensity
Variability in the Metronomic Speech of Stuttering and
Nonstuttering Speakers. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE AND
HEARING RESEARCH, 43, 513-520.
This fluency program focuses on the model that speech is
rhythmically structured in time. A study including 8 adults who
stutter and 8 fluent speakers was conducted to measure timing and
intensity under metronomic conditions. The participants were asked
to read 20 sentences in which certain syllables were repeated 9
times. Participants were given a practice session as well as auditory
and visual cues before reading the sentences. The intensity variation
between the beginning consonant and successive vowels was
computed, and the variation of successive syllable onsets. The results
indicate little variation between timing in PWS and fluent speakers,
but there was discrepancy between the timing of syllables. In PWS
the timing was more variable than in fluent speakers.
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Bramlett, R.E., Bothe, A.K., & Franic, D.M. (2006). Using preference
based measures to assess quality of life in stuttering. JOURNAL
OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH, 49, 381-394.
This study investigated the use of preference-based measures
in the assessment of the quality of life in stuttering. The participants,
75 adults with no history of stuttering, completed a structured,
scripted interview. In the interview, the researchers gathered
background information, familiarized the participants with the anchor
health states (perfect health and death), and played videotapes of
people who stutter. The participants were then presented with cards
representing four health states (your health, mild stuttering,
moderate stuttering, and severe stuttering) from best to worst.
Participants also rated the four health states using a rating scale,
standard gamble, and time trade-off preference. The researchers
compared the rating methods and calculated the utility values for
each health state. It was concluded that standard utility
measurements used to assess the quality of life in fluency disorders
are consistent with published measurements used with other
disorders (e.g. vision impairments). In addition, the researchers
conclude that standard utility measurement techniques may be
beneficial in stuttering treatment and research.
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Bray, M. , Kehle, T. J. , Lawless, K. A. & Theodore, L. A. (2003). The
relationship of self-efficacy and depression to stuttering. AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY, 12(4), 425-431.
This article discussed a study which looked at the relationship between self-
efficacy in verbal fluency and academics and depression. Twenty-one
adolescents were involved in the study and were given the Self-Efficacy
Scaling for Adolescents Who Stutter (SEA), the Self-Efficacy for
Academic Tasks (SEAT), and the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale
(RADS). Their scores on these assessments were compared to matched
fluent speakers. The results found that self-efficacy for speaking was the
only factor that had a significant difference between the adolescents who
stutter and the fluent speakers.
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Brisk, D.J., Healey, E.C., & Hux, K.A. (1997). Clinicians' training and
confidence associated with treating school-age children who
stutter: A national survey. LANGUAGE, SPEECH AND HEARING
SERVICES IN SCHOOLS, 28(2), 164-176.
A national survey was conducted to update information pertaining
to the treatment of school age children who stutter. Speech-
Language Pathologists' training, confidence, attitudes, and
perceptions of stuttering were examined. The results indicate that
SLP's have a more positive outlook in treating school age stutterers.
However, it was indicated that university programs need to continue
offering courses and experience with stuttering to instill greater
confidence in SLP's.
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Broscolo, B & Rescorla, L (2002) Fluency of School-Aged Children With a History of
Specific Expressive Language Impairment: An Exploratory Study. American
Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11, 41-49
This study elicits narratives from 22 pairs of 9-year-old children and analyzes for
fluency characteristics. Eleven of the children had a history of specific expressive
language impairment (HSLI-E) and the other half had histories of normal language
development. The results indicate that the children with HSLI-E as a group produce
more disfluencies then their typically developing peers.
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Brown, C.J., Zimmerman, G.N., Linville, R.N., and Hegmann, J.P.
(1990). Variations in self-paced behaviors in stutterers and
nonstutterers. JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING RESEARCH,
33, 317-323.
The subjects who participated in this study, 10 stutterers and 10
nonstutterers, were asked to perform three different self-paced
rhythmic tasks: finger tapping, jaw opening and closing, and
repetition of "ah". Each task was performed at three different
rates. Results indicated that the subjects who stuttered performed
the tasks at a slower rate than the nonstutterers and with less
variability.
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Brown, S.L. & Colcord, R.D. (1987). Perceptual comparisons of adolescent stutterers'
and nonstutterers' fluent speech. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 12,
419-427.
This study examined the differences between the fluent speech of stutterers and of
nonstutterers. It was determined that perceptual differences can be identified in the
areas of segmental and suprasegmental aspects of speech. Those areas identified as
perceptual cues were voice quality, imprecise articulation, choppy speech, tension,
rapid rate, inappropriate/reduced intonation, monotone, and hard glottal attacks/hard
articulatory contact. It was suggested in the conclusion of this study that the
characteristics of an adult stutterer's fluent speech are present in adolescence. The
conclusion further stated that emphasis should be placed on the production of speech
which is acoustically and physiologically similar to a nonstutterer's speech pattern as
well as the reduction or elimination of stuttering behaviors.
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Brundage, S.B. (2007). Virtual reality augmentation for functional
assessment and treatment of stuttering. TOPICS IN LANGUAGE
DISORDERS, 27, 254-271.
This article focuses on the application of virtual reality
techniques in the assessment and treatment of individuals who
stutter. Within this article, the uses of virtual reality are described as
well as recent research findings. Results of the studies reveal that
virtual reality programs and naturalistic speaking situations appear
to have similar effects on individuals who stutter. Thus, resulting in
similar attitudes and behaviors. One advantage to virtual reality
programs is that the clinician is able to modify the various aspects of
the program to meet the needs of specific clients.
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Brundage, S.B., Bothe, A.K., Lengeling, A.N., & Evans, J.J. (2006).
Comparing judgments of stuttering made by students, clinicians,
and highly experienced judges. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 31, 271-283.
The reliability of stuttering judgments made by students,
practicing clinicians, and experienced judges was examined in this
study. The participants, including 41 students and 31 practicing
clinicians, watched a videotape containing 216 speech samples of
adults who stutter. Each 5 second long sample was judged as
stuttered or not stuttered. The researchers calculated intrajudge and
interjudge reliability for the clinicians and student participant groups.
The results were then compared to the data from an experienced
judge group, collected in a previous study using the same procedures.
Mean intrajudge and interjudge reliability was found to be similar
across groups (approximately 84%-89%). However, when compared to
the experienced judges, the students and clinicians under-identified
more than half of the speech samples as stuttered. The researchers
propose that under-identification may be because the clinicians and
students are fearful of labeling normal disfluencies as stuttered
speech. These findings evidence the need for more intensive training
in the identification of fluency disorders for students and practicing
clinicians.
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Brundage, S., Graap, K., Gibbons, K., Ferrer, M., & Brooks, J. (2006).
Frequency of stuttering during challenging and supportive
virtual reality job interviews. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS,
31, 325-339.
One of the biggest challenges a speech language pathologist
must address in the treatment of stuttering is generalization of the
client's fluency from the clinical setting to the real world. A virtual
reality environment (VRE) is a computer simulation which represents
the environment and speaking situations that people who stutter may
encounter. This article describes the experiences of 20 people who
stutter participating in a VRE trial, specifically a challenging interview
environment and a supportive interview environment. The findings
suggest that the VRE is perceived similarly to the real world. For this
reason the VRE could possibly serve as a valid tool for speech
language pathologists to measure the generalization achieved by the
person who stutters.
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Brundage, S. & Ratner, N. (1989). Measurement of stuttering
frequency in children's speech. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS,
14, 5, 351-358.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between
three different indicators of utterance length and the frequency of
stuttering in children's speech. The measurements were mean length
of utterance in morphemes, syllables and words. Eight children who
were disfluent were analyzed from a spontaneous speech sample.
Mean length-of-utterances and disfluencies were compared. The
study found increases in utterance length is correlated with
stuttering. They also found increasing the length of short utterances
in word increments is more likely to impair fluency of output than is
increasing utterance length by adding syllables or morphemes. The
study did not find a correlation between the amount of disfluent
words and the amount of disfluent syllables or morphemes. The
authors state a better indicator of disfluency prediction is the
utterance length and not the morpheme or syllable length.
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Brutten, G. J., & Dunham, S. L. (1989). The communication attitude
test. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 14, 5, 371-377.
The purpose of this study was to develop and assess an
instrument that would assess the communication attitudes of grade
school children. The study was designed to evaluate the
communication beliefs of children whose speech is considered
"normal". Those scores will be used to compare attitudes with
children who stutter and those with other speech disorders. The test
developed was the Communication Attitude Test (C.A.T.). It was
administered to 518 children grades 2-8 whose speech was
considered to be normal. The student's average C.A.T. score indicated
that most children have few if any negative attitudes toward their
speech. There was also a correlation between the decrease in scores
and the increase in age among the students. The study suggests that
addition evaluation of the C.A.T. should be completed, but that the
information presented in this study is of significance to the reliability
of the C.A.T.
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Brutten, GJ., & Miller, R. (1988). The disfluencies of normally fluent
black first graders. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 13, 291-299.
Rarely has race of the subjects sampled been addressed in research
studies. This study was designed to investigate if nonstuttering
black children differ in the amount of disfluency that they exhibit, if
black children differ in the frequency with which they emit different
types of fluency failures, and if there is an interaction between the
sex of black children and the types of disfluency that they are likely
to display. The results indicate that the disfluency types of black
children are similar to past research.
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Brutten, G.J., Trotter, A.C. (1986). A dual-task investigation of young stutterers and
nonstutterers. JOURNAL
OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 11 (4), 275-284.
The purpose of this study was to compare the capacity of children who do and who do
not stutter under dual-task circumstances that differed in demand level. Subjects included
40 students: 20 right handed children who stuttered and 20 right handed children who did
not stutter. The subjects were asked to tap a button as quickly as possible with either
their right or left hand in a single-task control condition where they remained silent, in
three increasingly demanding dual-task conditions where they tapped and spoke
concurrently, and in a dual-task condition where they tapped and vocalized a sound
concurrently. Results indicated that there was no significant difference between the group
by hand, group by condition or group by hand or condition. The children who stuttered
did perform slower than the children who did not stutter.
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Brutten, G.J. and Vanryckeghem, M. (1993). The development of
stuttering: A reply to Bloodstein. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY
DISORDERS, 18 (4), 407-410.
A letter to the editor concerning Bloodstein's (1993) letter to the
editor. The authors felt that Bloodstein's developmental phases are
based on data that show relatively low co-relationship between age
and features and, thus, a notable amount of unaccounted variance.
They felt that they would be better off if they used a behavioral
model in which the observed variations in age and features among
stuttering children was seen as a function of difference in their
experience history rather than as a somewhat atypical aspect of an
underlying developmental process.
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Byrd, C. T., Conture, E. G., & Ohde, R. N. (2007). Phonological priming
in young children who stutter: Holistic versus incremental
processing. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE
PATHOLOGY, 16, 43-53.
Holistic processing is the act of processing speech at the
syllable level. Incremental processing is processing the individual
sounds in words, from the beginning to the end of the word. A
picture-naming priming model was used to compare these two
methods of processing phonology of children who stutter and
children who do not stutter. Speech recognition time was measured
while the children named pictures during holistic, incremental, and
neutral priming conditions. The results indicated that children who
stutter are delayed in the ability to shift from holistic to incremental
processing. It is thought that this delay may play a factor in their
inability to consistently produce fluent speech.
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Burger R. & Wijnen, F. (1999). Phonological encoding and word stress in
stuttering and nonstuttering subjects. JOUNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDRS, 24,
91-106.
The main focus of this study was to collect more data to support a previous
study done by Wijen and Boers (1994) hypothesizing that stuttering is related to
difficulty in phonological encoding and word stress. A problem with the
previous study was small subject size, so this study tested a larger selection of
stutterers and nonstutterers. Researchers looked at the priming effect, the
difference in reaction time, between heterogeneous and homogeneous conditions.
That is, response words that are phonologically related and words that are not
phonologically related. Subjects uttered one response words from a set of five as
fast as they could upon visual presentation of a related cue word. The previous
study indicated that the stress-bearing part of a syllable is delayed due to
difficulty encoding. However, the results of the recent study indicated that
although nonstutterers responded faster than stutterers, the expected
interaction of group, primetype, and condition was not apparent.
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Burley, P., & Morley, R. (1987). Self-monitoring processes in stutterers. JOURNAL
OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 1, 71-78.
This study uses the Self-Monitoring Scale created by Snyder. The scale was
administered to 26 adult stutterers and 26 adult non-stutterers. The study tried to
determine if stutterers differed significantly in their level of self-monitoring compared
to normally fluent speakers. The authors indicated that stutterers are usually thought
of as low self-monitoring speakers. The outcomes of this study support this idea.
Analysis of the self-monitoring scale indicated that the stutterers received a low score
on the scale for self-monitoring in speech as opposed to the high self-monitoring score
achieved by the normally fluent speakers.
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Burley, P.M. & Rinaldi, W. (1986) Effects of sex of listener and of stutterer on ratings of
stuttering speakers. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 11, 329-333.
This study addresses how the sex of the person who stutters may affect the listener's
attitude toward them. A rating scale was used to assess the fluent speaker's attitudes
toward people who stutter in such areas as intelligibility and decisiveness. The fluent
speakers listened to two recordings of a person who stuttered. One was a man and one
was a woman. The people who stuttered read the same weather forecast and their
stuttering was in the same severity rating. Although there was no significant interaction
between the sex of the person who stuttered and the sex of the subject, men rated the
people who stuttered lower than the females rated the people who stuttered.
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Bushey, T & Martin, R (1988) Stuttering in Childrenıs Literature. Language, Speech,
and Hearing Services in Schools, 19, 235-250
The Authors review 20 works of childrenıs fiction in which a character stutters.
All books used were published before 1960 with all but three published after 1969.
The books were assessed on the following topics (a) Symptomalogy of stuttering, (b)
conditions under which stuttering increases or decreases, (c) personality characteristics
of the stuttering, (d) cause of stuttering, (e) and clinical treatment of stuttering. Some
of the included books are Donıt worry, dear, The Legend of the Veery Bird, Creole,
Why Are People Different? A Book About Prejudice, Seal Secret, The Puma, Mirror
of Her Own, and The Immediate Gift.
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Byrd, K. & Cooper, E. (1989). Apraxic speech characteristics in
stuttering, developmentally apraxic, and normal speaking
children. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS, 14(3), 215-229.
The focus of this study is looking at the similarities and
differences of scores between three groups of children on an apraxia
screening measurement. This research analyzes the scores obtained
by three groups of children, ages 4-9, on the screening test for
Developmental Apraxia of Speech (STDAS). The three groups were
comprised of children who speak normally, children who stutter, and
children who have developmental apraxia of speech.
The results of this study indicate that the groups had some
significant performance differences. The apraxic group and the
disfluent group significantly differed on only one subtest,
articulation. These results indicate that there may be more
similarities between apraxia and stuttering. These results may
provide insight into both a cause and the recovery pattern of some
stutterers.
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Byrd, K., & Cooper, EB. (1989). Expressive and receptive language
skills in stuttering children. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS,
14, 121-126.
It has been noted that one of the characteristics of children who
stutter is delayed language. It is unknown whether or not this delay
is the result of the etiology of the stuttering, the adaptation to the
stuttering or both. The purpose of this study was to identify any
language delay in the child subjects that stuttered. The subjects were
given the TACL-R to test receptive language, the TOLD-P to test
expressive language, and the FAD-C to test fluency. The results
showed significant differences in the chronological ages and age
equivalent scores on the expressive language test. These results
could be used to support the hypothesis that the expressive language
delays observed in children who stutter could be the result of the
child using simple verbalizations as a way of coping with the
stuttering.
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Caizuso, A.J., et al. (1994). Adults who stutter: Responses to
cognitive stress. JOURNAL OF SPEECH AND HEARING RESEARCH,
37(4), 746-754.
This study investigates the effects of speech and cognitive stress
on the articulatory coordination abilities of adults who stutter.
Two groups were assessed, 9 people who stuttered, and 9 people who
did not stutter. Measurements of heart rate, blood pressures,
dysfluencies, errors, speech rate, and response latency as well as
word duration, vowel duration, and formant center frequency. The
results of the study indicated that cognitive stress results in
greater temporal disruptions and more dysfluencies for stutterers.
Cardiovascular evidence indicates PWS experience increases in blood
pressure at the same rate as those wh