The Speculative Period (1492-1840)

Jose de Acosta, a Jesuit missionary working with the Native cultures in Mexico and Peru during the 1570's and 1580's publishes Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias- an account of his travels and his musings about a variety of subjects of Native American culture, origins and condition. Jose de Acosta's speculations are remarkable in that he hypothesized that some Native Americans could have arrived in the New World by having been blown there in craft by the wind unwittingly. However, he felt it more likely that the ancestral Native Americans had followed primarily a land route from Asia, with only short stretches of open water to navigate. He conceptualized these few individuals as having prospered and their descendents becoming the mighty civilizations he encountered in his travels. This hypothesis was uncanny as the Bering Strait was not discovered until 1728 by Vitus Bering, a century and a half after de Acosta's speculations. (Fagan, 1987)

1780's – Thomas Jefferson conducts one of the first systematic archaeological excavations in North America.

Thomas Jefferson was interested in all manner of natural history as well as his pursuits in politics, agriculture, architecture, history and the sciences. Jefferson collected Indian artifacts and studied Indian ethnography and languages. About 1780 he began to excavate a mound near his Virginia estate. He attended to this task in an organized manner and was able to observe stratified human remains. He concluded that this particular mound was an ancient Indian burial place. This was perhaps the first systematic archaeological excavation in North America.( Fagan 1987), (Willey and Sabloff 3rd Ed. 1993)

The westward expansion of European American colonists over the Allegheny mountains saw the discovery of hundreds of mounds. Settlers looking for treasure pillaged many of these. The human remains and associated grave offerings contained no gold but did contain ornaments of copper and mica, and the remnants of stone weapons unlike those in use by the current indigenous tribes in the area. By the 1850's a vast network of mounds had been discovered in an area from the Great Lakes to Nebraska and south to Florida. Almost none of these mounds were systematically excavated. (Fagan, 1987)

Early 1800's – Caleb Atwater presented the first theories stating that the mounds that were being discovered and some of which he had excavated were not built by the current Native Americans or by their ancestors.

Caleb Atwater, a Circleville Ohio Postmaster, surveyed and excavated a large number of mounds. Atwater discovered hundreds of burials with many artifacts in excellent condition. He attributed the mounds to non-Indian Asians who he believed pre-dated the Biblical flood. This was a common belief of the time. He believed the modern Native Americans of the area were also Asian by decent but were more recently arrived, long after the abandonment of the area by the moundbuilders. (Fagan 1987) (Willey and Sabloff 3rd.Ed.1993)

1817-1829 – Dr. James H. McColloh published “Researches in America,” in which he states that the Native Americans were the ones who created the mounds.

Dr. James H. McColloh, publishes "Researches in America," in 1817 and "Researches Philosophical and Antiquarian Concerning Aboriginal History of America" in1829. McColloh's primary contribution was that he believed that the moundbuilders and the Indians were one and the same race and that the modern Native Americans were perfectly capable of having created the mounds in times past. (Willey and Sabloff 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1839 – Samuel George Morton conducts scientific studies that also point to the Native Americans as being the moundbuilders.

Albert Koch discovered mastodon bones associated with a stone artifact.

Henry Rowe Schoolcraft became another proponent of ancestral Native Americans as moundbuilders.

Samuel George Morton, a well known physical anthropologist, begins to discredit the prevailing "lost race of the moundbuilders" hypothesis in "Crania Americana" of 1839. Morton had taken measurements of eight skulls from mounds and compared them with skulls from recently deceased modern Native Americans. He concluded they were of a single race, thus detracting from the separate race hypothesis. He did however give the supporters of the idea of an earlier and more civilized race an out. He differentiated the two groups along cultural grounds and stated they were of two families of the same race and named them "Toltecan" and "Barbarous," leaving open to argument the notion of a higher degree of civilization having existed at the time of the moundbuilders.(Fagan,1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

Albert Koch discovered mastodon bones associated with a stone artifact. Neither he nor anyone else at the time could believe that the artifact and the bones of an extinct species were contemporaneous. After exhibiting the bones in a sort of traveling show, Koch sold the bones to the British Museum and the artifact to a private German collector. (Fagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, publishes his findings from the Grave Creek Mound excavation he had recently concluded in Ohio. Schoolcraft became another proponent of the ancestral Native Americans as moundbuilders. Earlier in his career he had held the opposing view but his work at Grave Creek had led him to see continuities between the archaeological evidence and modern native tribes. He further came to believe that the mounds themselves required no advanced civilization to effect their construction. His six volume treatise -"Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States" (1851-1857) were as long and inviting as their title suggests and were read by few at the time or since.(Willey and Sabloff, 3rd.Ed. 1993)

Charles Lyell publishes "Principles of Geology," the foundation of modern geology as well as establishing the precepts of stratigraphy and relative dating so essential to the development of modern archaeology. Lyell was also one of the first proponents of uniformitarianism, the idea that change occurs gradually and that processes that have occurred in the past are likely to be ongoing processes today. This influenced all of the natural sciences, including anthropology. (Encarta Encyclopedia, 1997), (Willey and Sabloff 3rd. Ed.1993),

The Classificatory-Descriptive Period (1840-1914)

1845 – Squire and Davis began studying Ohio mounds. They felt that the mounds could not have been built by Native Americans and the debate was renewed as the who built the mounds.

The first publication by the Smithsonian was "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley."

The American Ethnological Society commissioned Ephraim Squire to undertake a study of the mounds of the Ohio valley. Squire was a small town Ohio journalist, traveler and later, a diplomat. Squire formed a liaison with Edwin Hamilton Davis, a Chillicothe, Ohio physician.For the next two years they surveyed, mapped, excavated and documented mounds in the area. Their site plan work was careful and accurate and serves to guide visitors around the Ohio mound groups today. They worked under the assumption that no existing knowledge was to be used in their study that could prejudice their work or its conclusions. They looked at the mounds as if they were the very first to examine them. The newly formed Smithsonian Institution published their 300 page monograph, “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley” in 1848. This was the very first volume produced by the Smithsonian Institution. Squire and Davis believed the Native Americans were incapable of having the sophistication to have created the mounds and believed the moundbuilders to have been a different race. Squire also explored mounds in New York and in 1849 the Smithsonian published this work(Squire, 1849)(Pagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993).

1846 – Smithsonian Institution is founded

Smithsonian Institution is founded with funds bequeathed by James Smithson. In 1829 English scientist James Smithson left his fortune to his nephew with the provision that should his nephew have no heir, the bulk of the estate would transfer to The United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge." His reasons for the gift are obscure but he is quoted as having said, "Every man is a valuable member of society who by his observations, researches and experiments procures knowledge for men." With considerable debate, the Congress, on behalf of President Andrew Jackson formally accepted the behest in 1836 and set in motion the steps to secure it and decide how best to found the institution. Legal battles in England continued until 1838 when the British court awarded the estate to the United States. The estate was sold, converted to gold coin and brought to the United States. The U.S. Mint melted the coins and derived a value of $508,318 U.S. dollars. (Smithsonian Institution, 1998)

1848 – William H. Emory publishes the first descriptions of archaeological sites in the southwest.

William H. Emory publishes the first descriptions of archaeological sites in the American southwest.-"Notes of a Military Reconnaissance From Ft. Leavenworth, in Missouri, to San Diego, in California Including Parts of the Arkansas, Del Norte, and Gila Rivers." 30th Congress, 1st session, senate executive Docket 7. Washington D.C. 1848. (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1856 – Samuel Haven wrote a review of the state of North American archaeology. In it, he published his views on the origins of the moundbuilders.

Samuel Haven of Massachusetts, the Librarian of the American Antiquarian Society, set about writing an exhaustive and important review of the state of North American archaeology. He carefully collated, read and reviewed all the literature available at the time. Haven’s work was a conscientiously reasoned, description and logical discussion of the works he reviewed. This was in stark contrast to the speculative nature of most other works of the time. He concluded that the hypothesis of an ancient, lost, moundbuilder race was inconsistent with the evidence and was untenable. Haven’s new professional archaeological perspective was to be the hallmark of the period to follow.(Fagan, 1987)(Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1859 – Charles Darwin published “On the Origin of Species.”

1859 - Charles Darwin publishes "On the Origin of Species," and along with Alfred Russel Wallace shook the roots of modern thought regarding evolution and adaptation. Following from the work of Jean Baptist Pierre Lemarck and Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin set the stage for a new perspective for physical anthropology that could incorporate the concepts of adaptation and change in response to the environment. (Fagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1866 – 1875 The Peabody Museum is founded.

1866 - Harvard's Peabody Museum was founded through the efforts of O.C. Marsh, nephew of George Peabody. Marsh was influenced by Charles Lyell to take up archaeology in America. He participated in excavations in Ohio and was the prime mover behind Peabody's gift to Harvard University. (Willey and Sabloff 3rd. Ed. 1993)

In 1868, Jeffries Wyman, having excavated shell mounds in the coastal areas of the southeastern United States and the St. Johns River in Florida (Wyman 1868, 1875) became the first curator of the Peabody Museum. Wyman realized shell mounds were not modern and was able to discern stratigraphy and local variation in the shell mounds. (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

In 1875 Frederick Ward Putnam succeeded Wyman as Peabody Museum curator and maintained this post until 1909. Putnam was also a Peabody Professor of American Archaeology and Ethnology from 1887 until 1909. He was a leading figure of the classificatory descriptive period as an excavator, sponsor and administrator. Putnam helped found the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago and anthropology departments at the University of California, Berkeley and at the American Museum of Natural History. His primary interests included the mounds of the American Midwest and the search for late Pleistocene people in North America. Putnam procured the Great Serpent Mound for the Peabody museum and excavated there. (Fagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1876 – C.C. Abbott studied the Trenton Gravels where stone tools had been discovered.

C.C. Abbott was sponsored by Putnam to study the Trenton Gravels of New Jersey based on stone tools that "looked early" that had been discovered there. The desire to prove the great antiquity of people in the New World had been stimulated by the discovery of stone tools in France dated from the Paleolithic. These, combined with the revelations provided by Darwinian evolution and its implications, served to override the old limits set by the theological views of the past. North American quaternary geology and especially glaciology were poorly described or understood at this time. The times and extent of glaciation were not yet known, so the end of the Pleistocene, so crucial to understanding human habitation in North America was also obscure. (Fagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd.Ed. 1993)

1882 – Cyrus Thomas and William Henry Holmes worked under the direction of John Wesley Powell

1882 - John Wesley Powell, director of the Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology, hired Cyrus Thomas, a minister turned entomologist and archaeologist, to study the moundbuilders at the direction of and with funding from the United States congress. Believing the moundbuilders were part of an unbroken tradition of cultural development leading to modern Indians, Powell sent Thomas to validate his assertions. After a seven year study of fieldwork and hundreds of excavations between Florida and Nebraska, Thomas and a large team of researchers proved beyond all doubt that the moundbuilders were ancestral Native Americans. By using the geological approach of stratigraphic analysis and making careful observations and well documented accounts the results were widely accepted. (Fagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

Cyrus Thomas of the Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology dismantles the "lost moundbuilder race" hypothesis in 1894 by his efforts through the Division of Mounds Exploration begun in 1882. Thomas had also begun by ascribing to the "lost race" hypothesis but his field work transformed him into an authority and champion of the opposing view. The Bureau of Ethnology under John Wesley Powell became the leading institutional advocate favoring the view that the ancestors of modern Native Americans had built the mounds. (Fagan, 1987)(Willey and Sabloff, 3rd.Ed. 1993)

William Henry Holmes, with a strong background in geology and with considerable work with the United States Geological Survey in the western United States, was commissioned by Powell to conduct studies in archaeology. From 1882 to 1898 he produced a series of works on aboriginal ceramics of the eastern United States, his systematic typological classifications became a model for later research. In 1887 Powell diverted him to look for further evidence of Paleolithic man in North America. This was a controversial subject at the time. After years of travel and investigation he found no evidence of any kind, much to the disappointment of supporters such as Charles Abbott and Frederick Putnam. William Holmes succeeded Powell as chief of he Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology in 1902. (Fagan, 1987)(Willey and Sabloff,3rd. Ed. 1993)

1892 – chronologies of the Rio Grande region in New Mexico are done.

Adolf Bandelier studies chronologies ofRio Grande regional archaeology in New Mexico, and along with other researchers such as Edgar L. Hewett and Walter Hough make some fairly accurate predictions of sequences there. They lay the groundwork for later work done by Nels C. Nelson and A.V. Kidder. (Willey and Sabloff,3rd. Ed. 1993)

1903 – Ales Hrdlicka dominated physical anthropology, promoting professionalism. He also made it difficult to propose theories about Native Americans before 4,000 years ago.

Ales Hrdlicka, a Czech born physical anthropologist joins the United States National Museum and begins to study virtually every North American site and reviews all the data pertinent to early remains up to the beginning of the 20th century. Hrdlicka becomes curator of the Division of Physical Anthropology in 1910 and from this position dominates physical anthropology for the next two decades. Hrdlicka is relentless in his rejection of any and all early dates ascribed to finds. He still believed that, at some time in the future, evidence would be revealed that would allow human origins in North America to reach back to 10,000 years. His rejection of finds dated beyond 4,000 years became almost a fore drawn conclusion. Hrdlicka's dogmatic rejection of findings and his blistering attacks on research supporting opposing views caused considerable intimidation for workers in the discipline. To be fair, Hrdlicka was just as relentless in his criticism of sloppy archaeological techniques and untested hypothesis. By the end of his tenure however the very question of early man in North America was avoided by nearly all researchers for fear of damage to their careers. Archaeology had by this time become nearly two dimensional, fixed in a temporal horizon of only 4,000 years in depth. The contributions of Hrdlicka are important to the discipline as a whole in that the era that preceded Hrdlicka was one of wild speculation and inappropriate field techniques and interpretive strategies. His insistence on rigor and validation forced a new professionalism on research which was essential to meaningful work later on.(Fagan,1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1906-1907

Antiquities Act of 1906.

In 1907, Max Uhle studied cultural change in the San Francisco Bay Area.

The Antiquities Act of 1906 was an Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities. This law was enacted by the legislature of the United States and provided for a fine of $500 for the unauthorized excavation, injury, destruction or appropriation of historic or pre-historic sites. This was the first law of its kind. The Act further provided for the designation of sites by the President and the management of sites to the Department of the Interior. Permits for the study of sites by bona fide institutions were to be evaluated and granted by the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture and War depending on the federal jurisdiction wherein the site was located. These departments were to issue, publish and make public uniform rules and regulations for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the Act. (Antiquities Act of 1906)

In 1907 Max Uhle was noted primarily for his extensive Peruvian archaeology, however under Alfred Kroeber at the University of California, Berkeley, he excavated the Emeryville shell mound in the San Francisco bay area. Uhle applied rigorous stratigraphic controls and good documentation to arrive at a chronology. His interpretation of cultural change was rejected by Kroeber however, as their definitions of cultural change differed. The degree of change noted by Uhle would, by today's standards be called micro change, and as such were well ahead of their time. Kroeber did not accept the degree of cultural change exhibited by the data as being significant. (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

Alfred L. Kroeber, head of the anthropology department at the University of California introduced the concept of seriation. Kroeber also helped to develop a more refined seriational analysis of archaeological data. This brought the methodology of archaeology in line with cultural study and modern evolutionary thought as distinguished from pure stratigraphy in the geologic sense. (Kroeber, Zuni Potsherds, Anthropological Papers of the Museum of Natural History vol. 18, pt. 1,3-37. New York 1916) as cited by (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

The Classificatory-Historical Period: Chronology (1914-1940)

1916- Nels C. Nelson developed a southwestern United States chronology

1916 - Nels C. Nelson works extensively on a southwestern United States chronology and establishes a firm base for A.V Kidder to make use of the modern statigraphic method on a large scale. From Nelson’s work at Pecos, New Mexico in 1915,Kidder went on to extend and integrate the statigraphic method into a regional strategy of cultural and chronological study. Kidder published "An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology, with a Preliminary Account of the Excavations at Pecos" in 1924. (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed.1993)

1925 – extinct bison bones and a spear point were examined that point to the existence of Paleo Indians.

Jesse Figgins, Director of the Colorado Museum of Natural History, is given extinct bison bones and a spear point discovered 17 years prior by George McJunkin in Folsum, New Mexico. The bison remains were dated from the end of the last glaciation and the associated projectile point was telling evidence for Paleolithic man in the New World. Figgins invited scholars to Folsum to see for themselves. More evidence was found in-situ and by 1928 Paleo Indians were believed to have existed 10,000 or more years into the past in North America. (Fagan, 1987), (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1928 - Harold S. Gladwin and Winifred Gladwin published procedures for excavations

Harold S. Gladwin and Winifred Gladwin began a series of publications outlining procedures of site descriptions, methodology and nomenclature as well as publications regarding the excavations they had undertaken at the Casa Grande and Snaketown Hohokam sites in Arizona . (Gladwin 1928, 1928a, 1928b, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1937) as cited by (Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1929 – A.E. Douglass developed dendrochronology

A.E. Douglass, an astronomer, extended his study of tree growth rings to southwestern archaeology and began the modern science of dendrochronology. Douglass built a master series of growth ring data from long lived tree species. Preserved timbers ands posts from archaeological excavations could be dated absolutely by comparison to the master series. This was of great importance in developing a chronology in southwestern archaeology.(Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1932 – Clovis points were found to be an earlier technology than Folsom points.

In Clovis, New Mexico amateur collectors found projectile heads and extinct mammal bones lying along the shores of dried up shallow lake beds. The large projectile points lay between the ribs of some of the animals and association was certain. It was discovered that Clovis was even earlier than Folsum as sites were located where Folsum points lay directly over Clovis points. The Great Depression of the 1930'ssaw many public works projects that filled in some of the chronological gaps between Clovis and Folsum as well as more recent artifacts. (Fagan, 1987, Willey and Sabloff, 3rd. Ed. 1993)

1935 - The Historic Sites Act of 1935

The Historic Sites Act of 1935 an Act to provide for the preservation of historic American sites, buildings, objects and antiquities of national significance was developed. This legislation made it national policy to preserve significant historic or prehistoric sites for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the United States. The Department of the Interior through the National Park Service was charged with securing existing information concerning likely sites and to prepare a survey of these sites with the aim of determining those with particular significance. The department was further charged with making any additional investigations and research necessary to validate those sites deemed significant. The department was given the authority to acquire such properties, within limitations, for the purpose of their preservation. The department was authorized to make agreements with public or private agencies for contract of those treatments of the sites deemed appropriate by the department. The department was further authorized to restore or reconstruct or otherwise treat sites with an aim towards preservation and benefit within the purpose of the act. The department was to erect plaques or otherwise commemorate sites of significance and to develop an educational program and service for the purpose of making available to the public facts and information pertaining to significant historic or prehistoric sites.(Historic Sites Act of 1935)

1935 – 1940 Chronologies and dating techniques gained importance. Franz Boas influenced all anthropologists and archaeologists.

A major goal was the complete description of artifacts and the grouping of artifacts into categories that could be subdivided into artifact types. Archaeologists worked to define which cultures were associated with certain types of artifacts. They classified potsherds, arrow points and burial mounds as belonging to certain cultures. The archaeologists attempted to infer something about the people who produced the artifacts.

Franz Boas had a major influence during this time period, which is sometimes called the Boasian period. His influences directed people to create time sequences for projectile point shapes, pottery styles and other material items. From the Boasian viewpoint, culture was defined as “a conglomerate of traits coalesced and held by a group of people resulting either from that group’s own peculiar history of invention or from contact with new ideas originating outside their society.”(Woodall p.33)Other popular views of culture were structural-functionalism and cultural materialism. Both of these views were based on a definition of culture as a means of adaptation.

The Classificatory-Historical Period: Context and Function (1940-1960)

1945 – 1946 WWII ends and the Interagency Archaeological Salvage Program begins

At the end of WWII, the U.S. government began plans to damn rivers for the purposes of hydroelectric power, water storage, recreational facilities and flood control. In the plains, the majority of the sites are located along rivers, and the damming of the rivers would result in the loss of these sites. As a result, the Interagency Archaeological Salvage Program was developed which allowed for these sites to be excavated prior to the damming of the rivers. The type of archaeology done at these sites is known as salvage archaeology. The study of plains prehistory is dominated by salvage archaeology. Salvage archaeology has resulted in excavations being speeded up with no chance to restudy the areas. Interpretations of sites are made based on one study that was not completed under ideal situations.

1948 – Walter W. Taylor criticized the current methods used in archaeology

In his Ph.D. dissertation, Walter W. Taylor criticized archaeologists for not focusing on anthropology. He said that archaeology as it was currently being conducted was not archaeology; rather, it was historical reconstruction. This was one of the first times that archaeology and cultural processes were deemed important aspects of archaeology.

The Modern Period: Explaining and Understanding (1960-present)

1960 – Archaeology becomes a part of Anthropology.

The 1960’s mark a change in attitude among archaeologists. Prior to this time, the goal of archaeology was description of artifacts. Beginning in 1960, description as well as interpretation of the artifacts is important. This means that archaeology has become a technique for recovering anthropological data. Archaeologists formulate theories about cultural processes and test the theories through generating hypotheses and testing the hypotheses.

Many new techniques have developed. Historical data is used to compare archaeological finds with known facts. This is helpful is creating hypotheses and models. Analysis or artifacts, such as pottery help determine cultural traits such as matrilocality and patrilocality. A technique has developed that uses clusters of different patterns in styles of pottery techniques or other craft techniques to help determine typical residence patterns.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

Archaeological Resources Protection Act 1979

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990