Sparta

Sparta was a Greek city-state located in southern Laconia on the Peloponnesian peninsula. Situated between two mountain ranges, Sparta was cut off geographically from the rest of the Greek city-states, including even Messenia which is also located on the peninsula. This geographical isolation acted as a natural barrier which affected the development of the Spartan State.

Eventually Sparta transformed into a military state. The lives of Spartans were rigidly organized and controlled by the state. At birth children were examined by officials to see if it would live or die. Those that were determined to be too weak were taken into the mountains and left to die from exposure. Males, upon reaching the age of seven, were sent to live in community barracks and be trained in both military and athletic abilities. The schools taught the endurance of extreme pain, wilderness survival skills, and discipline. After 13 years of training, a soldier began service in the standing army. He continued to serve until the age of sixty, all the while being supported by a plot of land given to him and farmed by helots. Although they were allowed to marry, they remained eating and living in the barracks until they were sixty. At thirty they were recognized as adults and were allowed to participate in the Assembly. Raised from birth to believe that total loyalty to the state was the sole reason for living, Sparta was able remain at the forefront of Greek culture.

Spartan society consisted of a three-tiered class system. The helots made up the bottom tier of the class system-- these were slaves that provided labor for the Spartan’s agriculture industry. They worked small areas of land owned by a Spartan who would receive a percentage of the helot’s harvest. Next came the perioeci, which translated means "dwellers around or about" who formed the middle tier. These were the foreigners that lived in Sparta and carried out most of the trade and commerce within both the state and the city. They were given much of the same privileges of the Spartiate. The Spartiate were the native Spartans who formed the top tier and the only inhabitants to receive full legal and political rights. Spartan law was also based on the three-tier system. A crime committed by a helot was much more serious than the same crime committed by a Spartiate.

The government in Sparta was controlled by a dual monarchy. Below this monarchy was the council consisting of 28 nobles, all of whom were retired from military service, plus the two monarchs. Below the council was the assembly of all Spartiates, forming a pseudo democracy.

THE GREEK DARK AGES (1150 B.C. - 750 B.C.)

Dorian Invasion

Sparta’s roots can be traced back to the Greek Dark Ages (1150 B.C. - 750 B.C.), after the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. During this time the people of Greece experienced an era of declining population and falling food production. As a result their culture began to crumble and few records of that time period can be found. What is known is that there was an invasion from a group to the north known as the Dorians during the earliest years of the Dark Ages. They moved southward out of Macedonia into mainland Greece and the island of Crete (1220 B.C.), eventually conquering the last Mycenaean stronghold of Peloponnesus(1120 B.C.).

According to Spartan tradition the dual kingship system originated during these early years of Sparta. The Dorian invaders divided up the Peloponnesus between the leaders of the Dorians named the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the children of Hercules or Heracles). This group traced their genealogy to Hercules, and gained leadership (in part) because of their ancestry. Lacedaemonia was given to the twins Eurysthenes and Procles who set about destroying the last remaining Mycenaean strongholds.

THE RENAISSANCE OF GREECE (750 B.C. - 500 B.C.)

Greek Expansion

During the next two and a half centuries (750 B.C. - 500 B.C.) Greek culture was dominated by two developments: the polis and Greek colonization of the Mediterranean. Because the Greek mainland had experienced such a population explosion towards the end of the Dark Ages they began colonizing the Mediterranean. As a result the Greeks had new ports from which they could import/export goods and culture. From this, a new class of wealthy aristocrats arose who demanded political privileges. These people became known as tyrants. Tyrants usually achieved power through a coup d’etat and maintained it through the use of mercenary soldiers. Although tyranny did not last it did play an important role in the development of the Greek city-state.

Lycurgus’s Reforms

The polis was a small but autonomous political unit from which all political, religious, and social activities took place. A polis in ancient Greece was usually nothing more than town, village, or city, to which the surrounding countryside could gather. The idea and organization of the polis originated in Sparta through the militaries recruitment of regiments from five districts in Laconia and the reforms of Lycurgus. By the 8^th century B.C. it had emerged as the fundamental institution in Greek society.

At this time the Spartans were in the process of reforming their culture. The Eunomia, as it came to be known, were reforms set in motion by Lycurgus (825 B.C.-800 B.C.). Its fundamental goal was to limit the power of the dual kingship, to change the membership of the Council (Gerousia), and to ensure the rights of the Assembly. According to these reforms the kings were still the commanders in chief of the army in time of war. They also retained their importance within the Spartan religious system. However, when it came to politics they were just another member of the Council. In this way they held no real political power over anyone else. The council was in charge of proposing new motions which were then sent to the Assembly for approval. Lycurgus also founded the Ephorate, five individuals who went about inspecting the social system. They were equivalent to our Supreme Court.

Expansion of Sparta

Aries- God of war was a patron god of the city, of wars, battles, and warriors, and also of fearlessness in battle. In Sparta there was also a population explosion that put strains on resources that were available. To remedy this Sparta set about unifying the five villages that were descendants of the Heracleidae. When the five villages were united they formed the Spartan State. In the next seventy years (800 B.C. - 730 B.C.), the Spartans conquered the rest of Laconia and reduced them to serfs, known as perioikoi. The villages were then supervised by a Spartan who resided in each called a harmostes. Perioikoi were forced to pay a certain amount of their annual harvest to the harmostes. They were also forced into the Spartan army and were subject to Spartan law even though they had no citizenship or rights. Thus, the Spartan army was enlarged and a ring of vassal villages protected Sparta from attack.

Next was the conquest of Messina (740 B.C. - 720 B.C.), which enlarged the territory controlled by Sparta. Although they were outnumbered seven to one by the Messenians, Sparta was able to decisively defeat them and forced them into working the land. The Messenians were able to keep their religious beliefs if they promised not to rebel. This did not last long and Sparta was forced into war once more. The Second Messenian War lasted twenty years (640 B.C. - 620 B.C.). During which Sparta defeated the Messenians again and also added Thyreatis to the territory. The Messenians now became known as helots. In this way Sparta became the most powerful city-state within a hundred years.

Persian Threat and the Spartan Alliance

Sparta was consistently hostile towards the Persian Empire to the east. Alliances were made with Persia’s enemies, most notably Croesus, Amasis, and the Scythians. Sparta also attacked the tyrants who were still in power throughout the Greek mainland; this included Samos and Athens, who had pledged allegiance to Persia. In 524 B.C. Sparta and her ally Corinth attacked Polycrates of Samos, who at the time had the leading fleet in the Aegean.  Then, in 511 B.C., they sent two expeditions out trying to defeat Peisistratids. In 510 B.C. they defeated Aulis, the tyrant of Phocis, which increased Spartan prestige on mainland Greece. Later, in 508 B.C., they attempted to overthrow Cleisthenes who was negotiating with the Persians. The result of this military activity was an alliance between the Greek city-states, which came to be known as the Spartan Alliance. Its members included Boeotia, Phocis, Athens, Chalcis, and Delphi.

The Ionian revolt on the coast of Asia Minor was the basis for conflict with the Persians. The inhabitants of most of the cities on the Ionian coast were Greek emigrants who had migrated out of Greece during the Dark Ages. In the winter of 499 B.C., Aristagoras sailed from Asia Minor to ask the Spartan king Cleomenes for aid. Cleomenes refused to help on the basis that the Persian capital was located a month's march inland. In addition, the Spartan army was much smaller in size and would be at a disadvantage fighting in those wide-open conditions. Athens did agree to aid the Ionians in the revolt with twenty ships, since most of them had emigrated from Athens during the Dark Ages. In doing this Athens committed herself to war with the Persians.

War with Persia

Darius

In 490 B.C. Darius led an expedition against Athens. The expedition consisted of over 600 ships and 25,000 infantrymen, archers, and cavalrymen. Darius’s immediate goal was to punish Athens and Eretria for their involvement in the Ionian revolt. His ultimate goal was to conquer the Greek mainland and secure his newly acquired territories in Thrace, Macedonia, the Cyclades, and the Ionian cities. If defeated, the Greeks would be less likely  to assist a revolt in those lands. The force landed in the bay at Marathon twenty six miles from Athens. Immediately upon the force's arrival, a runner was dispatched to Sparta alerting them that a Persian force had landed. The Spartans were celebrating the festival of Apollo and were unable to fight for six days. Instead, the Athenian army of 10,000 marched out of Athens towards the plain at Marathon to meet Darius head on. The Athenians camped on the foothills next to the plain, opposite Darius’s forces, who were located on the coast with his fleet anchored in the bay. The Greeks were the first to attack when it was brought to their attention by Ionian’s fighting within the Persian army that the cavalry was away. They marched across the plain of Marathon at dawn and quickly closed the one mile distance that had separated the two camps. The Greeks fought bravely and drove the Persians, who outnumbered them, back to their ships. Victory at Marathon did not ensure Greek safety, however. The Persian fleet sailed southwards around the horn and towards Athens itself. Aware of this, the Athenians-- led by their victorious general Militiades-- marched back to Athens to protect the city. The Athenian army was joined by the Spartans, who had marched 140 miles in three days to reach Athens. Upon seeing the Athenian and Spartan forces at Athens, the Persians fled back to their capital of Susa. Although the Spartans did not take part in the fight they took notice of the military tactics used by Militiades. This would come in to play when Darius’s son Xerxes continued his father's campaign in 480 B.C.

Preparations for Xerxes's Invasion

Prior to the second war with Persia the Greeks made both political and military preparations. In Athens the political system was revamped, trying to limit the amount of warring done between the clans from which the politicians of the day arose. Every year Athens would vote on a person who would be ostracized. This reduced the likelihood of a coup d’etat and brought stability to Athenian politics. The people of Athens were then rallied behind one cause, protecting Athens from the Persians. The Athenian navy enlarged itself from sixty to two hundred ships. Athens was now a naval as well as a land power to be dealt with.

Although the Greek city-states admired Athens for standing up to Darius’s army, they looked towards Sparta for leadership. Sparta was the head of an alliance between Athens, Megara, Aegina, and Thebes against the Persians. And, as far as the city-states of mainland Greece were concerned, military power counted more than naval power. A meeting was held at Helenium (481 B.C.) where the Spartans and the Athenians asked the other Greek city-states for their pledge in war against Persia. In this meeting it was decided that both the naval and military forces would be commanded by Spartans. The Athenians disagreed with this. They though that they should have command of the navy, but all of the allies refused to serve under the command of Athenians. The Greeks also believed that the attack would be coming from the north and would be land-based. This was due to the fact that the Xerxes had been building a canal through the neck of the Athos peninsula to allow easier ship movements. The Greeks thought that this would allow him to bring supplies by ship to the soldiers on land.

The members of the alliance again met at the isthmuthus between Athens and Sparta in 480 B.C. By then the Greek organization came to be known as "The League of the Greeks", and was the closest Greece would come to unifying itself until the time of Alexander the Great. Members of the league numbered thirty-one city-states whose membership was recognized by a bronze plaque at Delphi. The bulk of military strength (40,000 heavily-armed infantrymen and 70,000 light-armed infantrymen) came from the city-states on the Peloponnesus, with the bulk of the navy (400 triremes) coming from Athens and her neighbors. Knowing that they were outnumbered, the Greeks planned to fight in narrow positions where the massive Persian army and cavalry would have no advantage in numbers.

Xerxes's Invasion

Once the canal was built the stage was set for the Persian invasion. Xerxes set out from Susa with an army that numbered 500,000 men and 4,000 naval ships. Large numbers of pack animals were needed to move the army's gear; hence, movement was only as fast as the slowest pack animal. The navy was used as a support force that supplied the vast army. It took five months for the Persians to march from their capital to the battlefield and by the time they arrived it was September.

The plan of the Greek League was two-fold: defend the mountain passes at Thermopylae, and the stationing of the fleet at Artemisium. In so doing the fleet and army would be within signaling distance of each other.

Battle of Thermopylae

Xerxes's army finally reached the plain in front of the mountain pass and encountered seven thousand Greek soldiers, most of whom were Peloponnesians. Also during this time the Persian fleet was moving along the Greek coast with its auxiliaries. They were hit by a storm off Magnesia that destroyed over 800 of their 4,000 ships. This cut in to the large naval force that had been amassed by the Persians. Also part of Xerxes's plan called for the navy to branch off in to two separate fighting groups. A detachment of 200 ships was to move around the Greek fleet and box them in. At that exact moment Xerxes planned to break through at Thermopylae and advance to the mainland and then the coast. In one swift movement he hoped to bottle up the Greeks and slaughter them.

The Spartan contingent at Thermopylae was able to hold off the Persians for three days. Fighting was hand to hand, and the Persians were repeatedly striking and retreating quickly. This continued until it was brought to Xerxes's attention that there was another pass which could be used to outflank the Greeks. The bulk of the Spartan army had been celebrating festivals at Delphi and Olympia, and because the Spartan contingent was able to keep the Persians at bay they were given time reach the battlefield. It also took the huge Persian cavalrymen out of the picture.

During this time the navies engaged each other too. The Greek navy, because it was a smaller fleet, took up a defensive position in a circle. In doing so, the Persians were unable to overrun them. Although there was not decisive victory by either side, the smaller Greek force was able to hold them off. When night fell a storm once again blew in. The Persian fleet of 200 ships that had broken from the main fleet earlier were caught in the savage storm, smashing them into the rocks. The next day 53 reserve ships arrived. At nightfall the Greeks attacked again, sinking a number of Cilician vessels (Persian allies).

On the third day of fighting the Persians found the alternate pass and advanced towards the Spartans at Thermopylae. The Phoenicians, who were supposed to defend the pass, retreated and gave way freely. When the Spartan general Leonidas heard of the advancing Persians he ordered everyone except the 300 Spartans retreat. The Spartans fought the Persians to the very last man, sacrificing their lives for the good of Sparta. On sea the fighting resumed as well. Since the Persians enjoyed their numbers they assumed a crescent shape, hoping to envelop the Greek navy. The fighting was fierce and the Greeks lost half of their fleet. Under the cloud of night they would retreat once again.

When Xerxes advanced once more over 20,000 of his best troops were dead and half of his fleet was sunk or unfit for battle. At the battle of Thermopylae only 4,000 lay dead; most of them were helots. The Greeks had shown superiority in man-for-man warfare. 

Battle of Salamis

The next engagement took place at Salamis and consisted of 380 Greek ships and 1,200 Persian ships. The Greek plan called for ramming the Persian ships broadside, which they would then board and use their superior weapons to slaughter the Persians onboard. Also, the plan called for a small force to protect from an attack from the north. When day broke fighting resumed once more. The Greek ships enticed the larger Persian fleet in to the narrows. As this was happening the Persian fleet was unable to hold their formation and things fell apart rapidly. The Phoenicians, who had the best ships in the Persian fleet, advanced much faster than the rest of the Persian fleet. As they were drawn in the waves acted on the ships, turning them broadside. This allowed the Athenian ships to ram and soldiers began to board the Persian fleet. The Athenian marines, who were heavily armed, routed their lightly armed enemies. During this the left wing was receiving heavy blows form the enemy. Once the Athenians defeated the Phoenicians they turned to help their comrades. Again the Greeks were able to defeat their enemy. As the shattered Persian fleet retreated towards Phalerum the Aeginetans on the left wing cut off their retreat and rammed them.

By now it was late in the year and the weather was becoming unfit for warfare. Xerxes retreated back to Thessaly were his army was to over-winter. After a year of fighting their was not a decisive victory. The Persian cavalry was still intact and in perfect condition. However, the Greeks had crushed the Persian navy at Salamis (with divine help from the gods).

Battle of Plataea

In late July of the next year, after the Persians had harvested the crops, and again engaged each other. The Greeks estimated that the Persian army was numbered over 300,000 men. Mardonius, the Persian cavalry general, planned for the Persians to take a stand at Plataea. There his cavalry would be able to maneuver, outflank the Greek infantry, and then encircle them on all sides. It was here that they constructed a stockade protect their reserves and supplies. Mardonius hoped that his cavalry would bring the swift and decisive victory that Xerxes himself had failed to achieve.

The Greek League had wintered at the Isthmus and was under the command of Pausanias, nephew of Leonidas. Their force numbered 38,700 well-armed hoplites and 70,000 light-armed infantrymen, most of which were helots. When the Greek army finally reached the Plataea it became apparent that their supply line was insufficient. The Greeks made the decision that an attack as soon as possible would be in their best interest.

At dawn the Persian cavalry began the attack. When the two armies met the Greeks were in disarray; they were trying to maneuver their lines during the night. Under these circumstances, Pausanias ordered the Persian infantry to advance to take advantage of the Greek disorganization. This would prove to be a costly mistake because the Greeks had superior armor. The Greeks stood firm and held their lines until the Persian advance was at their toes. As the two armies converged it soon became apparent that the Greek weaponry would make the difference. Even though the Greeks were outnumbered they managed to push back the enemy's lines. The fighting was particularly fierce where Mardonius and the imperial guard were fighting. Here, too, the Greeks advanced through the enemies lines and eventually killing Mardonius. Seeing this, the Persian infantry broke and began to flee with the Greek hoplites in hot pursuit. They then laid siege to the Persian stockade, eventually breaching the fortress. When they finished, the Greeks had managed to slaughter the whole Persian infantry.

Battle of Mycale

To prevent Xerxes from building another army and continuing the fight, the Greeks knew that they would have to crush the Persian navy. Without a navy the army could not be supplied, hence the Persians would not be able to sustain 500,000 soldiers on the Greek mainland.

When the Greek fleet left Aegina they numbered 250 warships and 50,000 men (5,000 hoplites and 45,000 sailors). The Greeks pursued the Persian navy back the coastal town of Mycale. Here the Persian force of 100,000 had once again built a stockade to protect their forces. Seeing this, the Greeks decided to land just down the coast from the Persians. From here the Greeks advanced on the Persians at once. The Greek army managed to push the enemy all the way back to their stockade. When all the Greek forces were brought together, they converged on the Persian stockade. In the onslaught that followed over 45,000 Persians were be killed. Their ships were burnt on the shore and the remaining force was taken prisoner.

Written By Travis S. Ruff