The Qing Dynasty was the second time when the whole of China was
ruled by foreigners, the Manchu. The first time was during the
Yuan Dynasty when China was controlled by the Mongols.
The Qing Dynasty lasted from 1644-1911 A.D. The reigns of the first three
emperors of this dynasty were a time of peace and prosperity for China. These
three rulers provided strong leadership for 133 years; they were the Kangxi
Emperor who reigned from 1662-1722 A.D., the Yongzheng Emperor who reigned from
1722-1736 A.D. and the Qianglong Emperor who reigned from 1736-1796 A.D. In
terms of government, the Qing Dynasty adopted the form of government used by
the Ming, with only minor adjustments. For example the
positions were all dual positions, one Manchu and one Chinese were in the same
position, with the Manchu having more power. The form of military organization
that the Qing used was one of the best in the world. They organized their
troops under banners, each of which was a separate unit. The number of banners
grew from 8 in the beginning to 24. These fighting men were personally attached
to the emperor, in fact he owned them. They were incredibly loyal to the
emperor. The bannermen also functioned as a talent pool from which civil
bureaucrats could be chosen.
The Qing were very successful as foreign rulers in
China. They maintained their domination of the Chinese by preserving their own
identity. They spent their summers in their homeland of Manchuria, which was
closed to the Chinese. They banned intermarriage among the Chinese, continued
to speak their own language and did not make their documents available to the
Chinese. They retained military strength over the Chinese by separating the
duties of the Chinese troops and of the Manchu troops. The Chinese were not
trained as a striking force. They also had a unique way of keeping the Mongols
away. They first immobilized and divided the Mongols under a similar fashion as
the Ming had done. However, they then supported the Yellow Lamaist sect of
Tibetan Buddhism, which was a popular religion of the Mongols, and focused
their attention on Lhasa, as a center of worship.
The Qing instituted changes in the dress of the Chinese. They required the Chinese men to shave their heads and wear queues. They also required them to wear Manchu clothes rather than the clothing style of the Ming Dynasty. The Qing did not require the Chinese women to change their dress, yet they did forbid them to bind their feet. This proved impossible to enforce and in 1668 A.D. the ruling was withdrawn. A custom the Qing did not attempt to change, was the preference for agriculture over trade. The Qing favored an isolationist policy, which proved fatal. The lack of trade hurt China economically.
The period of peace that followed the ascension of
the Qing Dynasty allowed for growth in all areas. Public works were repaired
and maintained. Taxes were very light as compared to previous dynasties, and in
famine struck areas, taxes were reduced even further. Commerce and
international trade grew. This peace allowed for a revival of arts and
learning. The areas of the novel, short story and drama contain the most famous
literary works. However, poetry, which was a more accepted form of writing,
also flourished. The poems show no real innovation, they followed examples set
forth by previous dynasties. Encyclopedic works were commissioned by the
emperors. Porcelain production continued to be important and innovations were
made in the use of new colors. Colors that developed were shades of green, and
compositions of black and yellow. A dark blue and brilliant red were also used.
Painting was also important, and for the first time European influences are
seen. European missionaries were allowed into China and influenced Chinese
ideas about science. However, Christianity was later outlawed when European
ships with Christian sailors began looting the Chinese coast. Another reason
for the outlawing of Christianity was disputes among the missionaries and a
papal ecclesiastical policy that was contrary to Chinese policy.
During the reign of Qianglong, the borders of China
were expanded to their greatest extent ever. His reign was the time of the
greatest prosperity during the Qing Dynasty. However, there are also signs of
internal problems. Popular uprisings occurred during this time, but they were
all put down. The first uprising was in 1774 A.D. in Shantung, then in 1775
A.D. another uprising occurred, this time it was led by the secret society
known as the Society of the White Lotus. In 1813 A.D., during the reign of
Qianglong's successor, another uprising occurred which was led by the secret
society known as the Society of Heaven's Law. The government, while they
succeeded in suppressing the uprisings, did not succeed in alleviating the
impoverishment that had led to these uprisings.
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| Image courtesy of Indianapolis Museum of Art. Vase is a gift of Mr. and Mrs. Eli Lilly |
The impact of the west was also felt for the first time in China. Great Britain especially was interested in trading with China for silk and tea. However, the British did not have anything that was easy to import to China until they began importing opium. This was devastating to China. Many became addicted to opium, and land that had previously been used for food began to be used to produce opium. Also, a large amount of Chinese money left the country in payment for the opium. Finally, in 1839 A.D. the opium trade was abolished. This set off a war with Great Britain that came to be known as the Opium Wars, and in 1842 A.D., China was forced to sign a treaty in which Great Britain received Hong Kong, and ports were opened to European trade. The terms of this treaty were not fully carried out by either side, and in 1857 A.D., fighting again broke out. The British again won and the Chinese were forced to grant more privileges to the British, that virtually turned China into a British colony.
Internal rebellions further weakened China. The T'ai P'ing rebellion is one of the most famous. Its leader also instituted religious changes among his followers. He mixed elements of Christianity and traditional Chinese religion, along with ideas of his own. He believed in communal property, and the equality of men and women among other things. Other uprisings which greatly affected China were known as the Mohammedan risings, which were more separate events than uprisings connected to each other. The problems caused by internal rebellion were further intensified by Japan's Westernization and goal of conquering the surrounding countries to provide both a buffer against attacks against Japan itself and to provide trading networks. Russia too began to come into contact with China and treaties were signed which defined the China/Russia border and allowed for types of trade.
While these struggles were occurring, the emperors
became younger and younger, so that they had no control and power was in the
hands of empresses and other advisors. The empress who held the most power was
Tzu Hsi. She was uneducated and opposed to any type of reform or modernization
that might have helped China economically and politically. Reformers who felt
that China had to change were executed, despite the validity of their arguments
that people whom they had previously regarded as inferior and barbarians were
easily defeating China. Tzu Hsi had the former emperor executed, and the next
day, she too died, albeit of natural causes. However, before her death she
placed a two year old on the throne. This further weakened the government and
strengthened the revolutionaries. His reign lasted from 1909-1911 A.D., at
which point the revolutionaries won and the Republic of China arose.
Dynasties of Later Imperial China
Images of artifacts courtesy of ArGa oriental collections.